Browse > Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.4062/biomolther.2015.003

Role of Micronutrients in Skin Health and Function  

Park, Kyungho (Department of Dermatology, Northern California Institute for Research and Education (NCIRE)-VA Medical Center, University of California)
Publication Information
Biomolecules & Therapeutics / v.23, no.3, 2015 , pp. 207-217 More about this Journal
Abstract
Skin is the first line of defense for protecting our bodies against external perturbations, including ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, mechanical/chemical stress, and bacterial infection. Nutrition is one of many factors required for the maintenance of overall skin health. An impaired nutritional status alters the structural integrity and biological function of skin, resulting in an abnormal skin barrier. In particular, the importance of micronutrients (such as certain vitamins and minerals) for skin health has been highlighted in cell culture, animal, and clinical studies. These micronutrients are employed not only as active compounds in therapeutic agents for treating certain skin diseases, but also as ingredients in cosmetic products. Here, the author describes the barrier function of the skin and the general nutritional requirements for skin health. The goal of this review is to discuss the potential roles and current knowledge of selected micronutrients in skin health and function.
Keywords
Skin disease; Skin function; Micronutrient; Therapeutic agent; Cosmetic ingredient;
Citations & Related Records
Times Cited By KSCI : 1  (Citation Analysis)
연도 인용수 순위
1 Tomic-Canic, M., Day, D., Samuels, H. H., Freedberg, I. M. and Blumenberg, M. (1996) Novel regulation of keratin gene expression by thyroid hormone and retinoid receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 1416-1423.   DOI
2 Tyrrell, R. M. and Keyse, S. M. (1990) New trends in photobiology. The interaction of UVA radiation with cultured cells. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 4, 349-361.   DOI
3 Uchida, Y. (2014) Ceramide signaling in mammalian epidermis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1841, 453-462.   DOI
4 Uchida, Y., Behne, M., Quiec, D., Elias, P. M. and Holleran, W. M. (2001) Vitamin C stimulates sphingolipid production and markers of barrier formation in submerged human keratinocyte cultures. J. Invest. Dermatol. 117, 1307-1313.   DOI
5 Uchida, Y. and Hamanaka, S. (2006). Stratum corneum ceramides: function, origins, and therapeutic applications. In Skin Barrier (P. M. Elias and K. R. Feingold, Eds.), pp. 43-65. Taylor & Francis, New York.
6 Uchida, Y., Houben, E., Park, K., Douangpanya, S., Lee, Y. M., Wu, B. X., Hannun, Y. A., Radin, N. S., Elias, P. M. and Holleran, W. M. (2010) Hydrolytic pathway protects against ceramide-induced apoptosis in keratinocytes exposed to UVB. J. Invest. Dermatol. 130, 2472-2480.   DOI
7 van de Kerkhof, P. C. (2006) Update on retinoid therapy of psoriasis in: an update on the use of retinoids in dermatology. Dermatol. Ther. 19, 252-263.   DOI
8 Van Hattem, S., Bootsma, A. H. and Thio, H. B. (2008) Skin manifestations of diabetes. Cleve. Clin. J. Med. 75, 772, 774, 776-777 passim.
9 van Steensel, M. A. (2007) Emerging drugs for ichthyosis. Expert Opin. Emerg. Drugs 12, 647-656.   DOI
10 Varani, J., Perone, P., Griffiths, C. E., Inman, D. R., Fligiel, S. E. and Voorhees, J. J. (1994) All-trans retinoic acid (RA) stimulates events in organ-cultured human skin that underlie repair. Adult skin from sun-protected and sun-exposed sites responds in an identical manner to RA while neonatal foreskin responds differently. J. Clin. Invest. 94, 1747-1756.   DOI
11 Verfaille, C. J., Borgers, M. and van Steensel, M. A. (2008) Retinoic acid metabolism blocking agents (RAMBAs): a new paradigm in the treatment of hyperkeratotic disorders. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 6, 355-364.   DOI
12 Voorhees, J. J. (1990) Clinical effects of long-term therapy with topical tretinoin and cellular mode of action. J. Int. Med. Res. 18 Suppl 3, 26c-28c.   DOI
13 Walraven, M., Gouverneur, M., Middelkoop, E., Beelen, R. H. and Ulrich, M. M. (2014) Altered TGF-beta signaling in fetal fibroblasts: what is known about the underlying mechanisms? Wound Repair Regen. 22, 3-13.   DOI
14 Wu, S., Gao, J., Dinh, Q. T., Chen, C. and Fimmel, S. (2008) IL-8 production and AP-1 transactivation induced by UVA in human keratinocytes: roles of D-alpha-tocopherol. Mol. Immunol. 45, 2288-2296.   DOI
15 Yamamoto, A., Serizawa, S., Ito, M. and Sato, Y. (1991) Stratum corneum lipid abnormalities in atopic dermatitis. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 283, 219-223.   DOI
16 Yamamoto, M., Patel, N. A., Taggart, J., Sridhar, R. and Cooper, D. R. (1999) A shift from normal to high glucose levels stimulates cell proliferation in drug sensitive MCF-7 human breast cancer cells but not in multidrug resistant MCF-7/ADR cells which overproduce PKC-betaII. Int. J. Cancer. 83, 98-106.   DOI
17 Barresi, C., Stremnitzer, C., Mlitz, V., Kezic, S., Kammeyer, A., Ghannadan, M., Posa-Markaryan, K., Selden, C., Tschachler, E. and Eckhart, L. (2011) Increased sensitivity of histidinemic mice to UVB radiation suggests a crucial role of endogenous urocanic acid in photoprotection. J. Invest. Dermatol. 131, 188-194.   DOI
18 Abramovits, W. (2009) Calcitriol 3 microg/g ointment: an effective and safe addition to the armamentarium in topical psoriasis therapy. J. Drugs Dermatol. 8, s17-22.
19 Badiu, D. L., Luque, R., Dumitrescu, E., Craciun, A. and Dinca, D. (2010) Amino acids from Mytilus galloprovincialis (L.) and Rapana venosa molluscs accelerate skin wounds healing via enhancement of dermal and epidermal neoformation. Protein J. 29, 81-92.   DOI
20 Balagopalakrishna, C., Bhunia, A. K., Rifkind, J. M. and Chatterjee, S. (1997) Minimally modified low density lipoproteins induce aortic smooth muscle cell proliferation via the activation of mitogen activated protein kinase. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 170, 85-89.   DOI
21 Bartholomew, M. (2002) James Lind's treatise of the scurvy (1753). Postgrad. Med. J. 78, 695-696.   DOI
22 Bikle, D. D., Ng, D., Tu, C. L., Oda, Y. and Xie, Z. (2001) Calcium- and vitamin D-regulated keratinocyte differentiation. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 177, 161-171.   DOI
23 Bikle, D., Teichert, A., Hawker, N., Xie, Z. and Oda, Y. (2007) Sequential regulation of keratinocyte differentiation by 1,25(OH)2D3, VDR, and its coregulators. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 103, 396-404.   DOI
24 Bikle, D. D. (1995) 1,25(OH)2D3-regulated human keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation: basic studies and their clinical application. J. Nutr. 125, 1709S-1714S.
25 Bikle, D. D., Chang, S., Crumrine, D., Elalieh, H., Man, M. Q., Choi, E. H., Dardenne, O., Xie, Z., Arnaud, R. S., Feingold, K. and Elias, P. M. (2004) 25 Hydroxyvitamin D 1 alpha-hydroxylase is required for optimal epidermal differentiation and permeability barrier homeostasis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 122, 984-992.   DOI
26 Bikle, D. D., Teichert, A., Arnold, L. A., Uchida, Y., Elias, P. M. and Oda, Y. (2010) Differential regulation of epidermal function by VDR coactivators. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 121, 308-313.   DOI
27 Bissett, D. L., Chatterjee, R. and Hannon, D. P. (1990) Photoprotective effect of superoxide-scavenging antioxidants against ultraviolet radiation-induced chronic skin damage in the hairless mouse. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed. 7, 56-62.
28 Boelsma, E., van de Vijver, L. P., Goldbohm, R. A., Klopping-Ketelaars, I. A., Hendriks, H. F. and Roza, L. (2003) Human skin condition and its associations with nutrient concentrations in serum and diet. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77, 348-355.
29 Bouwstra, J.A., Pilgram, G.S.K., and Ponex, M. (2006) Structure of the skin barrier. In Skin Barrier (P.M. Elias and K.R. Feingold, Eds.), pp. 65-96. Taylor & Francis, New York.
30 Burke, K. E. (2007) Interaction of vitamins C and E as better cosmeceuticals. Dermatol. Ther. 20, 314-321.   DOI
31 Burke, K. E., Clive, J., Combs, G. F., Jr., Commisso, J., Keen, C. L. and Nakamura, R. M. (2000) Effects of topical and oral vitamin E on pigmentation and skin cancer induced by ultraviolet irradiation in Skh:2 hairless mice. Nutr. Cancer. 38, 87-97.   DOI
32 Campos, P. M., Goncalves, G. M. and Gaspar, L. R. (2008) In vitro antioxidant activity and in vivo efficacy of topical formulations containing vitamin C and its derivatives studied by non-invasive methods. Skin Res. Technol. 14, 376-380.   DOI
33 Chen, L., Hu, J. Y. and Wang, S. Q. (2012) The role of antioxidants in photoprotection: a critical review. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 67, 1013-1024.   DOI
34 Cosgrove, M. C., Franco, O. H., Granger, S. P., Murray, P. G. and Mayes, A. E. (2007) Dietary nutrient intakes and skin-aging appearance among middle-aged American women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 86, 1225-1231.
35 Double, K. L., Ben-Shachar, D., Youdim, M. B., Zecca, L., Riederer, P. and Gerlach, M. (2002) Influence of neuromelanin on oxidative pathways within the human substantia nigra. Neurotoxicol. Teratol. 24, 621-628.   DOI
36 Eichler, O., Sies, H. and Stahl, W. (2002) Divergent optimum levels of lycopene, beta-carotene and lutein protecting against UVB irradiation in human fibroblastst. Photochem. Photobiol. 75, 503-506.   DOI
37 Elder, J. T., Fisher, G. J., Zhang, Q. Y., Eisen, D., Krust, A., Kastner, P., Chambon, P. and Voorhees, J. J. (1991) Retinoic acid receptor gene expression in human skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 96, 425-433.   DOI
38 Elias, P. M. and Friend, D. S. (1975) The permeability barrier in mammalian epidermis. J. Cell Biology 65, 180-191.   DOI
39 Elias, P. M. (2007) The skin barrier as an innate immune element. Semin. Immunopathol. 29, 3-14.
40 Elias, P.M. and Feingold, K.R. (2006) Stratum corneum barrier function: Definitions and broad concepts. In Skin Barrier (P.M. Elias and K.R. Feingold, Eds.), pp. 1-4. Taylor & Francis, New York.
41 Elias, P. M., Fritsch, P. O., Lampe, M., Williams, M. L., Brown, B. E., Nemanic, M. and Grayson, S. (1981) Retinoid effects on epidermal structure, differentiation, and permeability. Lab. Invest. 44, 531-540.
42 Evans, J. A. and Johnson, E. J. (2010) The role of phytonutrients in skin health. Nutrients 2, 903-928.   DOI
43 Ewing, C. I., Gibbs, A. C., Ashcroft, C. and David, T. J. (1991) Failure of oral zinc supplementation in atopic eczema. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 45, 507-510.
44 Fine, J. D., Johnson, L. B., Weiner, M. and Suchindran, C. (2008) Gastrointestinal complications of inherited epidermolysis bullosa: cumulative experience of the National Epidermolysis Bullosa Registry. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 46, 147-158.   DOI   ScienceOn
45 Fine, J. D., Tamura, T. and Johnson, L. (1989) Blood vitamin and trace metal levels in epidermolysis bullosa. Arch. Dermatol. 125, 374-379.   DOI
46 Fisher, G. J., Datta, S. C., Talwar, H. S., Wang, Z. Q., Varani, J., Kang, S. and Voorhees, J. J. (1996) Molecular basis of sun-induced premature skin ageing and retinoid antagonism. Nature 379, 335-339.   DOI
47 Gombart, A. F., Borregaard, N. and Koeffler, H. P. (2005) Human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) gene is a direct target of the vitamin D receptor and is strongly up-regulated in myeloid cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. FASEB J. 19, 1067-1077.   DOI
48 Fisher, G. J., Wang, Z. Q., Datta, S. C., Varani, J., Kang, S. and Voorhees, J. J. (1997) Pathophysiology of premature skin aging induced by ultraviolet light. N. Engl. J. Med. 337, 1419-1428.   DOI
49 Frohm, M., Agerberth, B., Ahangari, G., Stahle-Backdahl, M., Liden, S., Wigzell, H. and Gudmundsson, G. H. (1997) The expression of the gene coding for the antibacterial peptide LL-37 is induced in human keratinocytes during inflammatory disorders. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 15258-15263.   DOI
50 Gann, A. A., Gates, P. B., Stark, D. and Brockes, J. P. (1996) Receptor isoform specificity in a cellular response to retinoic acid. Proc. Biol. Sci. 263, 729-734.   DOI
51 Goodman, D. S. (1984) Vitamin A and retinoids in health and disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 310, 1023-1031.   DOI
52 Halliday, G. M. (2005) Inflammation, gene mutation and photoimmunosuppression in response to UVR-induced oxidative damage contributes to photocarcinogenesis. Mutat. Res. 571, 107-120.   DOI   ScienceOn
53 Halprin, K. M. and Ohkawara, A. (1966) Glucose and glycogen metabolism in the human epidermis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 46, 43-50.   DOI
54 Han, D. C., Isono, M., Hoffman, B. B. and Ziyadeh, F. N. (1999) High glucose stimulates proliferation and collagen type I synthesis in renal cortical fibroblasts: mediation by autocrine activation of TGFbeta. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10, 1891-1899.
55 Igarashi, A., Uzuka, M. and Nakajima, K. (1989) The effects of vitamin E deficiency on rat skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 121, 43-49.
56 Hehenberger, K., Heilborn, J. D., Brismar, K. and Hansson, A. (1998) Inhibited proliferation of fibroblasts derived from chronic diabetic wounds and normal dermal fibroblasts treated with high glucose is associated with increased formation of l-lactate. Wound Repair Regen. 6, 135-141.   DOI
57 Hodges, R. E., Hood, J., Canham, J. E., Sauberlich, H. E. and Baker, E. M. (1971) Clinical manifestations of ascorbic acid deficiency in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 24, 432-443.   DOI
58 Hunt, T. K. (1986) Vitamin A and wound healing. J. Am. Acad Dermatol. 15, 817-821.   DOI
59 Jean, J., Soucy, J. and Pouliot, R. (2011) Effects of retinoic acid on keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation in a psoriatic skin model. Tissue Eng. Part. A 17, 1859-1868.   DOI
60 Johnson, E. J. (2002) The role of carotenoids in human health. Nutr. Clin. Care. 5, 56-65.   DOI
61 Juhlin, L., Edqvist, L. E., Ekman, L. G., Ljunghall, K. and Olsson, M. (1982) Blood glutathione-peroxidase levels in skin diseases: effect of selenium and vitamin E treatment. Acta Derm. Venereol. 62, 211-214.
62 Jurkiewicz, B. A., Bissett, D. L. and Buettner, G. R. (1995) Effect of topically applied tocopherol on ultraviolet radiation-mediated free radical damage in skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 104, 484-488.   DOI
63 Karna, E., Miltyk, W., Wolczynski, S. and Palka, J. A. (2001) The potential mechanism for glutamine-induced collagen biosynthesis in cultured human skin fibroblasts. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B Biochem. Mol. Biol. 130, 23-32.   DOI
64 Koczulla, R., von Degenfeld, G., Kupatt, C., Krotz, F., Zahler, S., Gloe, T., Issbrucker, K., Unterberger, P., Zaiou, M., Lebherz, C., Karl, A., Raake, P., Pfosser, A., Boekstegers, P., Welsch, U., Hiemstra, P. S., Vogelmeier, C., Gallo, R. L., Clauss, M. and Bals, R. (2003) An angiogenic role for the human peptide antibiotic LL-37/hCAP-18. J. Clin. Invest. 111, 1665-1672.   DOI
65 Kim, H., Lim, Y. J., Park, J. H. and Cho, Y. (2012) Dietary silk protein, sericin, improves epidermal hydration with increased levels of filaggrins and free amino acids in NC/Nga mice. Br. J. Nutr. 108, 1726-1735.   DOI
66 Kim, Y. I., Park, K., Kim, J. Y., Seo, H. S., Shin, K. O., Lee, Y. M., Holleran, W. M., Elias, P. M. and Uchida, Y. (2014) An endoplasmic reticulum stress-initiated sphingolipid metabolite, ceramide-1-phosphate, regulates epithelial innate immunity by stimulating beta-defensin production. Mol. Cell. Biol. 34, 4368-4378.   DOI
67 Kligman, A. M. (1997) The treatment of acne with topical retinoids: one man's opinions. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 36, S92-95.   DOI
68 Lakdawala, N., Babalola, O., 3rd, Fedeles, F., McCusker, M., Ricketts, J., Whitaker-Worth, D. and Grant-Kels, J. M. (2013) The role of nutrition in dermatologic diseases: facts and controversies. Clin. Dermatol. 31, 677-700.   DOI
69 Larsson, P., Ollinger, K. and Rosdahl, I. (2006) Ultraviolet (UV)A- and UVB-induced redox alterations and activation of nuclear factorkappaB in human melanocytes-protective effects of alpha-tocopherol. Br. J. Dermatol. 155, 292-300.   DOI
70 Lee, B., Vouthounis, C., Stojadinovic, O., Brem, H., Im, M. and Tomic-Canic, M. (2005) From an enhanceosome to a repressosome: molecular antagonism between glucocorticoids and EGF leads to inhibition of wound healing. J. Mol. Biol. 345, 1083-1097.   DOI
71 Machlin, L. J., Filipski, R., Nelson, J., Horn, L. R. and Brin, M. (1977) Effects of a prolonged vitamin E deficiency in the rat. J. Nutr. 107, 1200-1208.   DOI
72 Lee, D. D., Stojadinovic, O., Krzyzanowska, A., Vouthounis, C., Blumenberg, M. and Tomic-Canic, M. (2009) Retinoid-responsive transcriptional changes in epidermal keratinocytes. J. Cell. Physiol. 220, 427-439.   DOI
73 Lin, J. Y., Selim, M. A., Shea, C. R., Grichnik, J. M., Omar, M. M., Monteiro-Riviere, N. A. and Pinnell, S. R. (2003) UV photoprotection by combination topical antioxidants vitamin C and vitamin E. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 48, 866-874.   DOI
74 Lopez-Torres, M., Thiele, J. J., Shindo, Y., Han, D. and Packer, L. (1998) Topical application of alpha-tocopherol modulates the antioxidant network and diminishes ultraviolet-induced oxidative damage in murine skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 138, 207-215.   DOI
75 McArdle, F., Rhodes, L. E., Parslew, R., Jack, C. I., Friedmann, P. S. and Jackson, M. J. (2002) UVR-induced oxidative stress in human skin in vivo: effects of oral vitamin C supplementation. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 33, 1355-1362.   DOI
76 McDermott, A. M., Kern, T. S. and Murphy, C. J. (1998) The effect of elevated extracellular glucose on migration, adhesion and proliferation of SV40 transformed human corneal epithelial cells. Curr. Eye Res. 17, 924-932.   DOI
77 McKenzie, R. C. (2000) Selenium, ultraviolet radiation and the skin. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 25, 631-636.   DOI
78 Menkes, J. H. (1988) Kinky hair disease: twenty five years later. Brain Dev. 10, 77-79.   DOI
79 Meydani, S. N., Barklund, M. P., Liu, S., Meydani, M., Miller, R. A., Cannon, J. G., Morrow, F. D., Rocklin, R. and Blumberg, J. B. (1990) Vitamin E supplementation enhances cell-mediated immunity in healthy elderly subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 52, 557-563.   DOI
80 Mesquita Kde, C., Igreja, A. C. and Costa, I. M. (2013) Atopic dermatitis and vitamin D: facts and controversies. An. Bras. Dermatol. 88, 945-953.   DOI
81 Mihaly, J., Gamlieli, A., Worm, M. and Ruhl, R. (2011) Decreased retinoid concentration and retinoid signalling pathways in human atopic dermatitis. Exp. Dermatol. 20, 326-330.   DOI
82 Mitchnick, M. A., Fairhurst, D. and Pinnell, S. R. (1999) Microfine zinc oxide (Z-cote) as a photostable UVA/UVB sunblock agent. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 40, 85-90.   DOI
83 Motta, S., Monti, M., Sesana, S., Mellesi, L., Ghidoni, R. and Caputo, R. (1994) Abnormality of water barrier function in psoriasis. Role of ceramide fractions. Arch. Dermatol. 130, 452-456.   DOI
84 Mukherjee, S., Date, A., Patravale, V., Korting, H. C., Roeder, A. and Weindl, G. (2006) Retinoids in the treatment of skin aging: an overview of clinical efficacy and safety. Clin. Interv. Aging 1, 327-348.   DOI
85 Naziroglu, M., Yildiz, K., Tamturk, B., Erturan, I. and Flores-Arce, M. (2012) Selenium and psoriasis. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 150, 3-9.   DOI
86 Niles, R. M. (2002) The use of retinoids in the prevention and treatment of skin cancer. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 3, 299-303.   DOI
87 Park, K., Lee, S. and Lee, Y. M. (2013b) Sphingolipids and antimicrobial peptides: function and roles in atopic dermatitis. Biomol. Ther. 21, 251-257.   DOI
88 Njar, V. C., Gediya, L., Purushottamachar, P., Chopra, P., Vasaitis, T. S., Khandelwal, A., Mehta, J., Huynh, C., Belosay, A. and Patel, J. (2006) Retinoic acid metabolism blocking agents (RAMBAs) for treatment of cancer and dermatological diseases. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 14, 4323-4340.   DOI
89 Park, K., Elias, P. M., Oda, Y., Mackenzie, D., Mauro, T., Holleran, W. M. and Uchida, Y. (2011) Regulation of cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide expression by an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress signaling, vitamin D receptor-independent pathway. J. Biol. Chem. 286, 34121-34130.   DOI
90 Park, K., Elias, P. M., Shin, K. O., Lee, Y. M., Hupe, M., Borkowski, A. W., Gallo, R. L., Saba, J., Holleran, W. M. and Uchida, Y. (2013a) A novel role of a lipid species, sphingosine-1-phosphate, in epithelial innate immunity. Mol. Cell. Biol. 33, 752-762.   DOI
91 Peroni, D. G., Piacentini, G. L., Cametti, E., Chinellato, I. and Boner, A. L. (2011) Correlation between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and severity of atopic dermatitis in children. Br. J. Dermatol. 164, 1078-1082.   DOI
92 Peterkofsky, B. (1991) Ascorbate requirement for hydroxylation and secretion of procollagen: relationship to inhibition of collagen synthesis in scurvy. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 54, 1135s-1140s.   DOI
93 Pickart, L. (2008) The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 19, 969-988.   DOI
94 Ricciarelli, R., Maroni, P., Ozer, N., Zingg, J. M. and Azzi, A. (1999) Age-dependent increase of collagenase expression can be reduced by alpha-tocopherol via protein kinase C inhibition. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 27, 729-737.   DOI
95 Pickart, L., Vasquez-Soltero, J. M. and Margolina, A. (2012) The human tripeptide GHK-Cu in prevention of oxidative stress and degenerative conditions of aging: implications for cognitive health. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2012, 324832.
96 Radoja, N., Diaz, D. V., Minars, T. J., Freedberg, I. M., Blumenberg, M. and Tomic-Canic, M. (1997) Specific organization of the negative response elements for retinoic acid and thyroid hormone receptors in keratin gene family. J. Invest. Dermatol. 109, 566-572.   DOI
97 Rafferty, T. S., McKenzie, R. C., Hunter, J. A., Howie, A. F., Arthur, J. R., Nicol, F. and Beckett, G. J. (1998) Differential expression of selenoproteins by human skin cells and protection by selenium from UVB-radiation-induced cell death. Biochem. J. 332 (Pt 1), 231-236.   DOI
98 Ross, R. and Benditt, E. P. (1962) Wound healing and collagen formation. II. Fine structure in experimental scurvy. J. Cell Biol. 12, 533-551.   DOI
99 Sardy, M. (2009) Role of matrix metalloproteinases in skin ageing. Connect. Tissue Res. 50, 132-138.   DOI
100 Shi, H. P., Fishel, R. S., Efron, D. T., Williams, J. Z., Fishel, M. H. and Barbul, A. (2002) Effect of supplemental ornithine on wound healing. J. Surg. Res. 106, 299-302.   DOI
101 Spravchikov, N., Sizyakov, G., Gartsbein, M., Accili, D., Tennenbaum, T. and Wertheimer, E. (2001) Glucose effects on skin keratinocytes: implications for diabetes skin complications. Diabetes 50, 1627-1635.   DOI
102 Takema, Y., Hattori, M. and Aizawa, K. (1996) The relationship between quantitative changes in collagen and formation of wrinkles on hairless mouse skin after chronic UV irradiation. J. Dermatol. Sci. 12, 56-63.   DOI
103 Stechmiller, J. K., Childress, B. and Cowan, L. (2005) Arginine supplementation and wound healing. Nutr. Clin. Pract. 20, 52-61.   DOI
104 Steenvoorden, D. P. and Beijersbergen van Henegouwen, G. (1999) Protection against UV-induced systemic immunosuppression in mice by a single topical application of the antioxidant vitamins C and E. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 75, 747-755.   DOI
105 Stewart, M. S., Cameron, G. S. and Pence, B. C. (1996) Antioxidant nutrients protect against UVB-induced oxidative damage to DNA of mouse keratinocytes in culture. J. Invest. Dermatol. 106, 1086-1089.   DOI
106 Thangapazham, R. L., Darling, T. N. and Meyerle, J. (2014) Alteration of skin properties with autologous dermal fibroblasts. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 15, 8407-8427.   DOI
107 Thiele, J. J. (2001) Oxidative targets in the stratum corneum. A new basis for antioxidative strategies. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 14 suppl 1, 87-91.
108 Thiele, J. J., Schroeter, C., Hsieh, S. N., Podda, M. and Packer, L. (2001) The antioxidant network of the stratum corneum. Curr. Probl. Dermatol. 29, 26-42.
109 Thiele, J. J., Traber, M. G. and Packer, L. (1998) Depletion of human stratum corneum vitamin E: an early and sensitive in vivo marker of UV induced photo-oxidation. J. Invest. Dermatol. 110, 756-761.   DOI