Browse > Article
http://dx.doi.org/10.4062/biomolther.2013.072

Targeting the Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling in Cancer Therapy  

Sheen, Yhun Yhong (College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University)
Kim, Min-Jin (College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University)
Park, Sang-A (College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University)
Park, So-Yeon (College of Pharmacy, Ewha Womans University)
Nam, Jeong-Seok (Laboratory of Tumor Suppressor, Lee Gil Ya Cancer and Diabetes Institute, Gachon University)
Publication Information
Biomolecules & Therapeutics / v.21, no.5, 2013 , pp. 323-331 More about this Journal
Abstract
TGF-${\beta}$ pathway is being extensively evaluated as a potential therapeutic target. The transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ (TGF-${\beta}$) signaling pathway has the dual role in both tumor suppression and tumor promotion. To design cancer therapeutics successfully, it is important to understand TGF-${\beta}$ related functional contexts. This review discusses the molecular mechanism of the TGF-${\beta}$ pathway and describes the different ways of tumor suppression and promotion by TGF-${\beta}$. In the last part of the review, the data on targeting TGF-${\beta}$ pathway for cancer treatment is assessed. The TGF-${\beta}$ inhibitors in pre-clinical studies, and Phase I and II clinical trials are updated.
Keywords
Transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ (TGF-${\beta}$); EW-7197; ALK5; Breast cancer; Metastasis;
Citations & Related Records
연도 인용수 순위
  • Reference
1 Park, C. Y., Kim, D. K. and Sheen, Y. Y. (2011b) EW-7203, a novel small molecule inhibitor of transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ (TGF-${\beta}$) type I receptor/activin receptor/like kinase-5, blocks TGF-${\beta}1$- mediated epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in mammary epithelial cells. Cancer Sci. 102, 1889-1896.   DOI   ScienceOn
2 Parsons, R., Myeroff, L. L., Liu, B., Willson, J. K., Markowitz, S. D., Kinzler, K. W. and Vogelstein, B. (1995) Microsatellite instability and mutations of the transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ type II receptor gene in colorectal cancer. Cancer Res. 55, 5548-5550.
3 Peng, H., Carretero, O. A., Vuljaj, N., Liao, T.-D., Motivala, A., Peterson, E. L. and Rhaleb, N.-E. (2005) Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors a new mechanism of action. Circulation 112, 2436-2445.   DOI   ScienceOn
4 Porter, P. L. (2009) Global trends in breast cancer incidence and mortality. Salud Publica Mex. 51, s141-s146.   DOI
5 Roberts, A. B. and Wakefield, L. M. (2003) The two faces of transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ in carcinogenesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 100, 8621-8623.   DOI   ScienceOn
6 Meulmeester, E. and ten Dijke, P. (2011). The dynamic roles of TGF-${\beta}$ in cancer. J. Pathol. 223, 205-218.
7 Micalizzi, D. S., Christensen, K. L., Jedlicka, P., Coletta, R. D., Barón, A. E., Harrell, J. C., Horwitz, K. B., Billheimer, D., Heichman, K. A. and Welm, A. L. (2009) The Six1 homeoprotein induces human mammary carcinoma cells to undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis in mice through increasing TGF-${\beta}$ signaling. J. Clin.Invest. 119, 2678-2690.   DOI   ScienceOn
8 Micalizzi, D. S., Wang, C.-A., Farabaugh, S. M., Schiemann, W. P. and Ford, H. L. (2010) Homeoprotein Six1 increases TGF-${\beta}$ Type I receptor and converts TGF-${\beta}$ signaling from suppressive to supportive for tumor growth. Cancer Res. 70, 10371-10380.   DOI
9 Mishra, L., Derynck, R. and Mishra, B. (2005) Transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ signaling in stem cells and cancer. Science 310, 68-71.   DOI   ScienceOn
10 Mohammad, K. S., Javelaud, D., Fournier, P. G., Niewolna, M., McKenna, C. R., Peng, X. H., Duong, V., Dunn, L. K., Mauviel, A. and Guise, T. A. (2011) TGF-${\beta}$-RI kinase inhibitor SD-208 reduces the development and progression of melanoma bone metastases. Cancer Res. 71, 175-184.   DOI
11 Moon, J., Kim, H., Cho, I., Sheen, Y. and Kim, D. (2006) IN-1130, a novel transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ type I receptor kinase (ALK5) inhibitor, suppresses renal fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy. Kidney Int. 70, 1234-1243.   DOI   ScienceOn
12 Muraoka-Cook, R. S., Dumont, N. and Arteaga, C. L. (2005) Dual role of transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ in mammary tumorigenesis and metastatic progression. Clin. Cancer Res. 11, 937s-943s.
13 Muraoka, R. S., Dumont, N., Ritter, C. A., Dugger, T. C., Brantley, D. M., Chen, J., Easterly, E., Roebuck, L. R., Ryan, S. and Gotwals, P. J. (2002) Blockade of TGF-${\beta}$ inhibits mammary tumor cell viability, migration, and metastases. J. Clin. Invest. 109, 1551-1559.   DOI
14 Levy, L. and Hill, C. S. (2006) Alterations in components of the TGF-${\beta}$ superfamily signaling pathways in human cancer. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 17, 41-58.   DOI   ScienceOn
15 Lindley, L. E. and Briegel, K. J. (2010) Molecular characterization of $TGF{\beta}$-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in normal finite lifespan human mammary epithelial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 399, 659-664.   DOI   ScienceOn
16 Maliekal, T. T., Antony, M.-L., Nair, A., Paulmurugan, R. and Karunagaran, D. (2003) Loss of expression, and mutations of Smad 2 and Smad 4 in human cervical cancer. Oncogene 22, 4889-4897.   DOI   ScienceOn
17 Massague, J. (2008) $TGF{\beta}$ in cancer. Cell 134, 215-230.   DOI   ScienceOn
18 Mani, S. A., Guo, W., Liao, M.-J., Eaton, E. N., Ayyanan, A., Zhou, A. Y., Brooks, M., Reinhard, F., Zhang, C. C. and Shipitsin, M. (2008) The epithelial-mesenchymal transition generates cells with properties of stem cells. Cell 133, 704-715.   DOI   ScienceOn
19 Markowitz, S., Wang, J., Myeroff, L., Parsons, R., Sun, L., Lutterbaugh, J., Fan, R. S., Zborowska, E., Kinzler, K. W. and Vogelstein, B. (1995) Inactivation of the type II TGF-beta receptor in colon cancer cells with microsatellite instability. Science 268, 1336-1338.   DOI   ScienceOn
20 Massague, J. (2000) How cells read TGF-${\beta}$ signals. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 1, 169-178.   DOI   ScienceOn
21 Massague, J. and Gomis, R. R. (2006) The logic of $TGF{\beta}$ signaling. FEBS Lett. 580, 2811-2820.   DOI   ScienceOn
22 Matsuyama, S., Iwadate, M., Kondo, M., Saitoh, M., Hanyu, A., Shimizu, K., Aburatani, H., Mishima, H. K., Imamura, T. and Miyazono, K. (2003) SB-431542 and Gleevec inhibit transforming growth factor-${\beta}$-induced proliferation of human osteosarcoma cells. Cancer Res. 63, 7791-7798.
23 Melisi, D., Ishiyama, S., Sclabas, G. M., Fleming, J. B., Xia, Q., Tortora, G., Abbruzzese, J. L. and Chiao, P. J. (2008) LY2109761, a novel transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ receptor type I and type II dual inhibitor, as a therapeutic approach to suppressing pancreatic cancer metastasis. Mol. Cancer Ther. 7, 829-840.   DOI   ScienceOn
24 Hjelmeland, M. D., Hjelmeland, A. B., Sathornsumetee, S., Reese, E. D., Herbstreith, M. H., Laping, N. J., Friedman, H. S., Bigner, D. D., Wang, X.-F. and Rich, J. N. (2004) SB-431542, a small molecule transforming growth factor-${\beta}$-receptor antagonist, inhibits human glioma cell line proliferation and motility. Mol. Cancer Ther. 3, 737-745.
25 Kingsley, D. M. (1994) The TGF-beta superfamily: new members, new receptors, and new genetic tests of function in different organisms. Genes Dev. 8, 133-146.   DOI   ScienceOn
26 Kang, Y., He, W., Tulley, S., Gupta, G. P., Serganova, I., Chen, C.-R., Manova-Todorova, K., Blasberg, R., Gerald, W. L. and Massague, J. (2005) Breast cancer bone metastasis mediated by the Smad tumor suppressor pathway. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 13909-13914.   DOI   ScienceOn
27 Kang, Y., Siegel, P. M., Shu, W., Drobnjak, M., Kakonen, S. M., Corden- Cardo, C., Guise, T. A. and Massague, J. (2003) A multigenic program mediating breast cancer metastasis to bone. Cancer Cell 3, 537-549.   DOI   ScienceOn
28 Kim, D.-K., Sheen, Y. Y., Jin, C., Park, C.-Y., Domalapally, S., Kota, S. R., Maddeboina, K. and Bala, S. V. (2011) 2-pyridyl substituted imidazoles as therapeutic ALK5 and/or ALK4 inhibitors. Google Patents. PCT/KR2011/004631.
29 Kingsley, L. A., Fournier, P. G., Chirgwin, J. M. and Guise, T. A. (2007) Molecular biology of bone metastasis. Mol. Cancer Ther. 6, 2609-2617.   DOI
30 Korpal, M., Yan, J., Lu, X., Xu, S., Lerit, D. A. and Kang, Y. (2009) Imaging transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ signaling dynamics and therapeutic response in breast cancer bone metastasis. Nat. Med. 15, 960-966.   DOI   ScienceOn
31 Lampropoulos, P., Zizi-Sermpetzoglou, A., Rizos, S., Kostakis, A., Nikiteas, N. and Papavassiliou, A. G. (2012) TGF-beta signalling in colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett. 314, 1-7.   DOI   ScienceOn
32 Lee, G. Y., Kenny, P. A., Lee, E. H. and Bissell, M. J. (2007) Three-dimensional culture models of normal and malignant breast epithelial cells. Nat. Methods 4, 359-365.   DOI   ScienceOn
33 Goggins, M., Shekher, M., Turnacioglu, K., Yeo, C. J., Hruban, R. H. and Kern, S. E. (1998) Genetic alterations of the transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ receptor genes in pancreatic and biliary adenocarcinomas. Cancer Res. 58, 5329-5332.
34 Hagedorn, H. G., Bachmeier, B. E. and Nerlich, A. G. (2001) Synthesis and degradation of basement membranes and extracellular matrix and their regulation by TGF-${\beta}$ in invasive carcinomas (Review). Int. J. Oncol. 18, 669-681.
35 Gordon, M. S., Ilaria, R. Jr., de Alwis, D. P., Mendelson, D. S., McKane, S., Wagner, M. M., Look, K. Y. and LoRusso, P. M. (2013) A Phase I study of tasisulam sodium (LY573636 sodium), a novel anticancer compound, administered as a 24-h continuous infusion in patients with advanced solid tumors. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 71, 21-27.   DOI   ScienceOn
36 Grady, W. M., Myeroff, L. L., Swinler, S. E., Rajput, A., Thiagalingam, S., Lutterbaugh, J. D., Neumann, A., Brattain, M. G., Chang, J. and Kim, S.-J. (1999) Mutational inactivation of transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ receptor type II in microsatellite stable colon cancers. Cancer Res. 59, 320-324.
37 Grady, W. M., Rajput, A., Myeroff, L., Liu, D. F., Kwon, K., Willis, J. and Markowitz, S. (1998) Mutation of the type II transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ receptor is coincident with the transformation of human colon adenomas to malignant carcinomas. Cancer Res. 58, 3101-3104.
38 Hau, P., Jachimczak, P., Schlingensiepen, R., Schulmeyer, F., Jauch, T., Steinbrecher, A., Brawanski, A., Proescholdt, M., Schlaier, J. and Buchroithner, J. (2007) Inhibition of TGF-${\beta}$ 2 with ap 12009 in recurrent malignant gliomas: from preclinical to phase I/II studies. Oligonucleotides 17, 201-212.   DOI   ScienceOn
39 Heldin, C.-H., Miyazono, K. and Ten Dijke, P. (1997) TGF-${\beta}$ signalling from cell membrane to nucleus through SMAD proteins. Nature 390, 465-471.   DOI   ScienceOn
40 Derynck, R. and Akhurst, R. J. (2007) Differentiation plasticity regulated by TGF-${\beta}$ family proteins in development and disease. Nat. Cell Biol. 9, 1000-1004.   DOI   ScienceOn
41 Derynck, R., Akhurst, R. J. and Balmain, A. (2001) TGF-${\beta}$ signaling in tumor suppression and cancer progression. Nat. Genet. 29, 117-129.   DOI   ScienceOn
42 Eppert, K., Scherer, S. W., Ozcelik, H., Pirone, R., Hoodless, P., Kim, H., Tsui, L.-C., Bapat, B., Gallinger, S. and Andrulis, I. L. (1996). MADR2 maps to 18q21 and encodes a $TGF{\beta}$-regulated MAD-related protein that is functionally mutated in colorectal carcinoma. Cell 86, 543-552.   DOI   ScienceOn
43 Derynck, R. and Zhang, Y. E. (2003) Smad-dependent and Smad-independent pathways in TGF-${\beta}$ family signalling. Nature 425, 577-584.   DOI   ScienceOn
44 Dong, M. and Blobe, G. C. (2006) Role of transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ in hematologic malignancies. Blood 107, 4589-4596.   DOI   ScienceOn
45 Ehata, S., Hanyu, A., Fujime, M., Katsuno, Y., Fukunaga, E., Goto, K., Ishikawa, Y., Nomura, K., Yokoo, H. and Shimizu, T. (2007) Ki26894, a novel transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ type I receptor kinase inhibitor, inhibits in vitro invasion and in vivo bone metastasis of a human breast cancer cell line. Cancer Sci. 98, 127-133.   DOI   ScienceOn
46 Fernandez, T., Amoroso, S., Sharpe, S., Jones, G. M., Bliskovski, V., Kovalchuk, A., Wakefi eld, L. M., Kim, S.-J., Potter, M. and Letterio, J. J. (2002) Disruption of transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ signaling by a novel ligand-dependent mechanism. J. Exp. Med. 195, 1247-1255.   DOI
47 Flavell, R. A., Sanjabi, S., Wrzesinski, S. H. and Licona-Limón, P. (2010). The polarization of immune cells in the tumour environment by $TGF{\beta}$. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 10, 554-567.   DOI   ScienceOn
48 Ganapathy, V., Ge, R., Grazioli, A., Xie, W., Banach-Petrosky, W., Kang, Y., Lonning, S., McPherson, J., Yingling, J. M. and Biswas, S. (2010) Targeting the transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ pathway inhibits human basal-like breast cancer metastasis. Mol. Cancer 9, 122.   DOI   ScienceOn
49 Bueno, L., de Alwis, D. P., Pitou, C., Yingling, J., Lahn, M., Glatt, S. and Troconiz, I. F. (2008) Semi-mechanistic modelling of the tumour growth inhibitory effects of LY2157299, a new type I receptor TGF-${\beta}$ kinase antagonist, in mice. Eur. J. Cancer 44, 142-150.   DOI   ScienceOn
50 Calone, I. and Souchelnytskyi, S. (2012) Inhibition of TGFbeta signaling and its implications in anticancer treatments. Exp. Oncol. 34, 9-16.
51 Capocasale, R. J., Lamb, R. J., Vonderheid, E. C., Fox, F. E., Rook, A. H., Nowell, P. C. and Moore, J. S. (1995) Reduced surface expression of transforming growth factor beta receptor type II in mitogen-activated T cells from Sezary patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92, 5501-5505.   DOI
52 Chen, T., Yan, W., Wells, R. G., Rimm, D. L., McNiff, J., Leffell, D. and Reiss, M. (2001) Novel inactivating mutations of transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ type I receptor gene in head-and-neck cancer metastases. Int. J. Cancer 93, 653-661.   DOI   ScienceOn
53 Connolly, E. C., Freimuth, J. and Akhurst, R. J. (2012) Complexities of TGF-${\beta}$ targeted cancer therapy. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 8, 964-978.   DOI
54 Connolly, E. C., Saunier, E. F., Quigley, D., Luu, M. T., De Sapio, A., Hann, B., Yingling, J. M. and Akhurst, R. J. (2011) Outgrowth of drug-resistant carcinomas expressing markers of tumor aggression after long-term $T{\beta}RI/II$ kinase inhibition with LY2109761. Cancer Res. 71, 2339-2349.   DOI
55 DaCosta Byfield, S. D., Major, C., Laping, N. J. and Roberts, A. B. (2004) SB-505124 is a selective inhibitor of transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ type I receptors ALK4, ALK5, and ALK7. Mol. Pharmacol. 65, 744-752.   DOI   ScienceOn
56 Datta, P. K. and Mann, J. R. (2008) Transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ (TGF-${\beta}$) signaling inhibitors cancer therapy in: Transforming Growth Factor-${\beta}$ in Cancer Therapy. In Cancer Treatment and therapy, Volume II, pp.573-587, Human Press.
57 Biswas, S., Guix, M., Rinehart, C., Dugger, T. C., Chytil, A., Moses, H. L., Freeman, M. L. and Arteaga, C. L. (2007) Inhibition of TGF-${\beta}$ with neutralizing antibodies prevents radiation-induced acceleration of metastatic cancer progression. J. Clin. Invest. 117, 1305-1313.   DOI
58 Akiyama, Y., Iwanaga, R., Saitoh, K., Shiba, K., Ushio, K., Ikeda, E., Iwama, T., Nomizu, T. and Yuasa, Y. (1997) Transforming growth factor beta type II receptor gene mutations in adenomas from hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer. Gastroenterology 112, 33-39.   DOI   ScienceOn
59 Arteaga, C., Hurd, S., Winnier, A., Johnson, M., Fendly, B. and Forbes, J. (1993) Anti-transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta antibodies inhibit breast cancer cell tumorigenicity and increase mouse spleen natural killer cell activity. Implications for a possible role of tumor cell/host TGF-beta interactions in human breast cancer progression. J. Clin. Invest. 92, 2569-2576.   DOI   ScienceOn
60 Bandyopadhyay, A., Agyin, J. K., Wang, L., Tang, Y., Lei, X., Story, B. M., Cornell, J. E., Pollock, B. H., Mundy, G. R. and Sun, L.-Z. (2006) Inhibition of pulmonary and skeletal metastasis by a transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ type I receptor kinase inhibitor. Cancer Res. 66, 6714-6721.   DOI   ScienceOn
61 Zhang, Y. and Derynck, R. (1999) Regulation of Smad signalling by protein associations and signalling crosstalk. Trends Cell Biol. 9, 274-279.   DOI   ScienceOn
62 Yang, Y.-A., Dukhanina, O., Tang, B., Mamura, M., Letterio, J. J., Mac-Gregor, J., Patel, S. C., Khozin, S., Liu, Z.-y. and Green, J. (2002) Lifetime exposure to a soluble TGF-${\beta}$ antagonist protects mice against metastasis without adverse side effects. J. Clin. Invest. 109, 1607-1615.   DOI
63 Yingling, J. M., Blanchard, K. L. and Sawyer, J. S. (2004) Development of TGF-${\beta}$ signalling inhibitors for cancer therapy. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 3, 1011-1022.   DOI   ScienceOn
64 Zhang, B., Halder, S. K., Zhang, S. and Datta, P. K. (2009) Targeting transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ signaling in liver metastasis of colon cancer. Cancer Lett. 277, 114-120.   DOI   ScienceOn
65 Wakefield, L. M. and Roberts, A. B. (2002) TGF-${\beta}$ signaling: positive and negative effects on tumorigenesis. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 12, 22-29.   DOI   ScienceOn
66 Uhl, M., Aulwurm, S., Wischhusen, J., Weiler, M., Ma, J. Y., Almirez, R., Mangadu, R., Liu, Y.-W., Platten, M. and Herrlinger, U. (2004) SD-208, a novel transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ receptor I kinase inhibitor, inhibits growth and invasiveness and enhances immunogenicity of murine and human glioma cells in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Res. 64, 7954-7961.   DOI   ScienceOn
67 van Meeteren, L. A., Thorikay, M., Bergqvist, S., Pardali, E., Stampino, C. G., Hu-Lowe, D., Goumans, M.-J. and ten Dijke, P. (2012) Anti-human activin receptor-like kinase 1 (ALK1) antibody attenuates bone morphogenetic protein 9 (BMP9)-induced ALK1 signaling and interferes with endothelial cell sprouting. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 18551-18561.   DOI
68 Viloria-Petit, A. M., David, L., Jia, J. Y., Erdemir, T., Bane, A. L., Pinnaduwage, D., Roncari, L., Narimatsu, M., Bose, R. and Moffat, J. (2009) A role for the $TGF{\beta}$-Par6 polarity pathway in breast cancer progression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 14028-14033.   DOI   ScienceOn
69 Wendt, M. K., Smith, J. A. and Schiemann, W. P. (2010) Transforming growth factor-${\beta}$-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition facilitates epidermal growth factor-dependent breast cancer progression. Oncogene 29, 6485-6498.   DOI   ScienceOn
70 Wang, D., Kanuma, T., Mizunuma, H., Takama, F., Ibuki, Y., Wake, N., Mogi, A., Shitara, Y. and Takenoshita, S. (2000) Analysis of specific gene mutations in the transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ signal transduction pathway in human ovarian cancer. Cancer Res. 60, 4507-4512.
71 Wiercinska, E., Naber, H. P., Pardali, E., van der Pluijm, G., van Dam, H. and ten Dijke, P. (2011) The TGF-${\beta}$/Smad pathway induces breast cancer cell invasion through the up-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase 2 and 9 in a spheroid invasion model system. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 128, 657-666.   DOI   ScienceOn
72 Yakicier, M., Irmak, M., Romano, A., Kew, M. and Ozturk, M. (1999) Smad2 and Smad4 gene mutations in hepatocellular carcinoma. Oncogene 18, 4879-4883.   DOI
73 Subramanian, G., Schwarz, R. E., Higgins, L., McEnroe, G., Chakravarty, S., Dugar, S. and Reiss, M. (2004) Targeting endogenous transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ receptor signaling in SMAD4-deficient human pancreatic carcinoma cells inhibits their invasive phenotype 1. Cancer Res. 64, 5200-5211.   DOI   ScienceOn
74 Takenoshita, S., Tani, M., Nagashima, M., Hagiwara, K., Bennett, W. P., Yokota, J. and Harris, C. C. (1997) Mutation analysis of coding sequences of the entire transforming growth factor beta type II receptor gene in sporadic human colon cancer using genomic DNA and intron primers. Oncogene 14, 1255-1258.   DOI
75 Takeuchi, K., Abe, M., Hiasa, M., Oda, A., Amou, H., Kido, S., Harada, T., Tanaka, O., Miki, H. and Nakamura, S. (2010) TGF-${\beta}$ inhibition restores terminal osteoblast differentiation to suppress myeloma growth. PLoS One 5, e9870.   DOI   ScienceOn
76 Thuault, S., Valcourt, U., Petersen, M., Manfioletti, G., Heldin, C.-H. and Moustakas, A. (2006) Transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ employs HMGA2 to elicit epithelial-mesenchymal transition. J. Cell Biol. 174, 175-183.   DOI   ScienceOn
77 Tanaka, H., Shinto, O., Yashiro, M., Yamazoe, S., Iwauchi, T., Muguruma, K., Kubo, N., Ohira, M. and Hirakawa, K. (2010) Transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ signaling inhibitor, SB-431542, induces maturation of dendritic cells and enhances anti-tumor activity. Oncol. Rep. 24, 1637-1643.
78 Thiery, J. P., Acloque, H., Huang, R. Y. and Nieto, M. A. (2009) Epithelial-mesenchymal transitions in development and disease. Cell 139, 871-890.   DOI   ScienceOn
79 Thomas, D. A. and Massagué, J. (2005) TGF-${\beta}$ directly targets cytotoxic T cell functions during tumor evasion of immune surveillance. Cancer Cell 8, 369-380.   DOI   ScienceOn
80 Travis, R. C., Reeves, G. K., Green, J., Bull, D., Tipper, S. J., Baker, K., Beral, V., Peto, R., Bell, J. and Zelenika, D. (2010) Gene-environment interactions in 7610 women with breast cancer: prospective evidence from the Million Women Study. Lancet 375, 2143-2151.   DOI   ScienceOn
81 Rowland-Goldsmith, M. A., Maruyama, H., Matsuda, K., Idezawa, T., Ralli, M., Ralli, S. and Korc, M. (2002) Soluble type II transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ receptor attenuates expression of metastasis-associated genes and suppresses pancreatic cancer cell metastasis1. Mol. Cancer Ther. 1, 161-167.   DOI
82 Sanchez-Elsner, T., Botella, L. M., Velasco, B., Corbi, A., Attisano, L. and Bernabeu, C. (2001) Synergistic cooperation between hypoxia and transforming growth factor-${\beta}$ pathways on human vascular endothelial growth factor gene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 38527-38535.   DOI   ScienceOn
83 Sanchez-Zamorano, L. M., Flores-Luna, L., Angeles-Llerenas, A., Romieu, I., Lazcano-Ponce, E., Miranda-Hernandez, H., Mainero-Ratchelous, F. and Torres-Mejía, G. (2011) Healthy lifestyle on the risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 20, 912-922.   DOI   ScienceOn
84 Shinto, O., Yashiro, M., Kawajiri, H., Shimizu, K., Shimizu, T., Miwa, A. and Hirakawa, K. (2010) Inhibitory effect of a $TGF\beta$ receptor type-I inhibitor, Ki26894, on invasiveness of scirrhous gastric cancer cells. Br. J. Cancer 102, 844-851.   DOI   ScienceOn
85 Sawyer, T. K. (2004) Novel oncogenic protein kinase inhibitors for cancer therapy. Curr. Med. Chem. Anticancer Agents 4, 449-455.   DOI   ScienceOn
86 Schlingensiepen, K. H., Jaschinski, F., Lang, S. A., Moser, C., Geissler, E. K., Schlitt, H. J., Kielmanowicz, M. and Schneider, A. (2011) Transforming growth factor-beta 2 gene silencing with trabedersen (AP 12009) in pancreatic cancer. Cancer Sci. 102, 1193-1200.   DOI   ScienceOn
87 Shi, Y. and Massague, J. (2003) Mechanisms of TGF-${\beta}$ signaling from cell membrane to the nucleus. Cell 113, 685-700.   DOI   ScienceOn
88 Shirakihara, T., Horiguchi, K., Miyazawa, K., Ehata, S., Shibata, T., Morita, I., Miyazono, K. and Saitoh, M. (2011) TGF-${\beta}$ regulates isoform switching of FGF receptors and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. EMBO J. 30, 783-795.   DOI   ScienceOn
89 Nam, J.-S., Terabe, M., Mamura, M., Kang, M.-J., Chae, H., Stuelten, C., Kohn, E., Tang, B., Sabzevari, H. and Anver, M. R. (2008) An anti-transforming growth factor ${\beta}$ antibody suppresses metastasis via cooperative effects on multiple cell compartments. Cancer Res. 68, 3835-3843.   DOI   ScienceOn
90 Padua, D. and Massague, J. (2009) Roles of $TGF{\beta}$ in metastasis. Cell Res. 19, 89-102.   DOI   ScienceOn
91 Padua, D., Zhang, X. H.-F., Wang, Q., Nadal, C., Gerald, W. L., Gomis, R. R. and Massague, J. (2008) $TGF{\beta}$ primes breast tumors for lung metastasis seeding through angiopoietin-like 4. Cell 133, 66-77.   DOI   ScienceOn
92 Park, C.-Y., Son, J.-Y., Jin, C. H., Nam, J.-S., Kim, D.-K. and Sheen, Y. Y. (2011a) EW-7195, a novel inhibitor of ALK5 kinase inhibits EMT and breast cancer metastasis to lung. Eur. J. Cancer 47, 2642-2653.   DOI   ScienceOn