On the Development of Digital Radiography Detectors: A Review |
Kim, Ho-Kyung
(School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University)
Cunningham, Ian Alexander (Imaging Research Laboratories, Robarts Research institute) Yin, Zhye (Computed Tomography System and Application Laboratory, GE Global Research Center) Cho, Gyu-Seong (Department of Nuclear and Quantum Engineering, Korea Advanced Science and Technology) |
1 | Street, R. A., Nelson, S., Antonuk, L. and Perez-Mendez, V., 'Amorphous Silicon Sensor Arrays for Radiation Imaging,' Proc. Mater. Res. Soc., Vol. 192, pp. 441-452, 1990 |
2 | Floyd, Jr., C. E., Warp, R. J., Dobbins, J. T. III, Chotas, H. G., Baydush, A. H., Vargas-Voracek, R. and Ravin, C. E., 'Imaging Characteristics of an Amorphous Silicon Flat-panel Detector for Digital Chest Radiography,' Radiology, Vol. 218, No. 3, pp. 683-688, 2001 DOI |
3 | Kotter, E. and Langer, M., 'Digital Radiography with Large-area Flat-panel Detectors,' Eur. Radiol., Vol. 12, No. 10, pp. 2562-2570, 2002 DOI |
4 | Antonuk, L. E., Boudry, J., Huang, W., McShan, D. L., Morton, E. J., Yorkston, J., Longo, M. J. and Street, R. A., 'Demonstration of Megavoltage and Diagnostic X-ray Imaging with Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Arrays,' Med. Phys., Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 1455-1466, 1992 DOI ScienceOn |
5 | Kasap, S. O. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Direct-conversion Flat-panel X-ray Image Detectors,' IEE Proc. -Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 149, No. 2, pp. 85-96, 2002 |
6 | Cunningham, I. A. and Shaw, R., 'Signal-to-noise Optimization of Medical Imaging Systems,' J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, Vol. 16, No. 3, 621-632, 1999 DOI ScienceOn |
7 | Bates, C. W., 'Scintillation Process in Thin Films of CsI(Na) and CsI(Tl) due to Low Energy X-rays, Electrons and Photons,' Adv. Electronics Electron Phys., Vol. 28A, pp. 451-459, 1968 |
8 | Knoll, G. F., 'Radiation Detection and Measurement,' John Wiley & Sons, p. 49, 2000 |
9 | Klein, C. A., 'Bandgap Dependence and Related Features of Radiation Ionization Energies in Semiconductors,' J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 2029-2038, 1968 DOI |
10 | Zhao, W., DeCresenzo, G., Kasap, S. O. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Ghosting Caused by Bulk Charge Trapping in Direct Conversion Flat-panel Detectors Using Amorphous Selenium,' Med. Phys., Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 488-500, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
11 | Kim, H. K., 'Analytical Model for Incomplete Signal Generation in Semiconductor Detectors,' Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 88, Issue 13, pp. 132112-1-132112-3, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
12 | Zhao, W., Belvis, I., Germann, S. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Digital Radiology Using Active Matrix Readout of Amorphous Selenium: Construction and Evaluation of a Prototype Real-time Detector,' Med. Phys., Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1834-1843, 1997 DOI ScienceOn |
13 | Pang, G., Zhao, W. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Digital Radiology Using Active Matrix Readout of Amorphous Selenium: Geometrical and Effective Fill Factors,' Med. Phys., Vol. 25, No. 9, pp. 1636-1646, 1998 DOI ScienceOn |
14 | Zhao, W. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Active Matrix X-ray Imaging Array,' United States Patent, No. 5,962,856, 1999 |
15 | Kim, H. J., Kim, H. K., Cho, G. and Choi, J., 'Construction and Characterization of An Amorphous Silicon Flat-panel Detector Based on Ion-shower Doping Process,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 505, No. 1-2, pp. 155-158, 2003 DOI |
16 | Samei, E., Flynn, M. J., Chotas, H. G. and Dobbins, J. T., 'DQE of Direct and Indirect Digital Radiography System,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4320, pp. 189-197, 2001 |
17 | Samei, E. and Flynn, M. J., 'An Experimental Comparison of Detector Performance for Direct and Indirect Digital Radiography Systems,' Med. Phys., Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 608-622, 2003 DOI ScienceOn |
18 | Borasi, G., Samei, E., Bertolini, M., Nitrosi, A. and Tassoni, D., 'Contrast-detail Analysis of Three Flat Panel Detectors for Digital Radiography,' Med. Phys., Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 1707-1719, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
19 | Ducourant, T., Couder, D., Wirth, T., Trochet, J. C., Bastiaens, R. J. M., Bruijins, T. J. C., Luijendijk, H. A., Sandkamp, B., Davies, A. G. and Didier, D., 'Image Quality of Digital Subtraction Angiography Using Flat Detector Technology,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5030, pp. 203-214, 2003 |
20 | Moy, J.-P., 'Signal-to-noise Ratio and Spatial Resolution in X-ray Electronic Imagers: Is the MTF a Relevant Parameter?' Med. Phys., Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 86-93, 2000 DOI ScienceOn |
21 | Rocha, J. G. and Correia, J. H., 'A High-performance Scintillator-silicon-well X-ray Microdetector Based on DRIE Techniques,' Sensors and Actuators A, Vol. 92, No. 1-3, pp. 203-207, 2001 DOI |
22 | Badel, X., Galeckas, A., Linnros, J., Kleimann, P., Frojdh, C. and Petersson, C. S., 'Improvement of an X-ray Imaging Detector Based on a Scintillating Guides Screen,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 487, No. 1-2, pp. 129-135, 2002 DOI |
23 | Zhao, W., Hunt, D. C., Tanioka, K. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Amorphous Selenium Flat Panel Detectors for Medical Applications,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 549, No. 1-3, pp. 205-209, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
24 | Simon, M., Engel, K. J., Menser, B., Badel, X. and Linnros, J., 'X-ray Imaging Performance of Scintillator-filled Silicon Pore Arrays,' Med. Phys., Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 968-981, 2008 DOI ScienceOn |
25 | Antonuk, L. E., Li, Y., Du, H., El-Mohri, Y., Zhao, Q., Yamamoto, J., Sawant, A., Wang, Y., Su, Z., Lu, J.-P., Street, R. A., Weisfield, R. and Yao, B., 'Investigation of Strategies to Achieve Optimal DQE Performance from Indirect Detection Active Matrix Flat-panel Imagers (AMFPIs) through Novel Pixel Amplification Architectures,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5745, pp. 18-31, 2005 |
26 | Antonuk, L. E., El-Mohri, Y., Zhao, Q., Koniczek, M., McDonald, J., Yeakey, M., Wang, Y., Behravan, M., Street, R. A. and Lu, J.-P., 'Exploration of the Potential Performance of Polycrystalline Silicon-based Active Matrix Flat-panel Imagers Incorporating Active Pixel Sensor Architectures,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 6913, pp. 69130I-1-69130I-13, 2005 |
27 | Dimitrakopoulos, C. D. and Malenfant, R. L., 'Organic Thin Film Transistors for Large Area Electronics,' Adv. Mater., Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 99-117, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
28 | Wong, W. S., Ready, S., Matusiak, R., White, S. D., Lu, J.-P., Ho, J. and Street, R. A., 'Amorphous Silicon Thin-film Transistors and Arrays Fabricated by Jet Printing,' Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 80, No. 4, pp. 610-612, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
29 | Arias, A. C., Ready, S. E., Lujan, R., Wong, W. S., Paul, K. E., Salleo, A., Chabinyc, M. L., Apte, R., Street, R. A., Wu, Y., Liu, P. and Ong, B., 'All Jet-Printed Polymer Thin-film Transistor Active-matrix Backplanes,' Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 85, No. 15, pp. 3304-3306, 2004 DOI ScienceOn |
30 | Street, R. A., Wong, W. S., Ready, S., Lujan, R., Arias, A. C., Chabinyc, M. L., Salleo, A., Apte, R. and Antonuk, L. E., 'Printed Active-Matrix TFT Arrays for X-ray Imaging,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5745, pp. 7-17, 2005 |
31 | Mettivier, G., Montesi, M. C. and Russo, P., 'First Images of a Digital Autoradiography System Based on a Medipix2 Hybrid Silicon Pixel Detector,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 48, No. 12, pp. N173-N181, 2003 DOI ScienceOn |
32 | Thunberg, S., Adelow, L., Blom, O., Coster, A., Egerstrom, J., Eklund, M., Egnell, P., Francke, T., Jordung, U., Kristoffersson, T., Lindman, K., Lindqvist, L., Marchal, D., Olla, H., Penton, E., Peskov, V., Rantanen, J., Sokolov, S., Svedenhag, P., Ullberg, C. and Weber, N., 'Dose Reduction in Mammography with Photon Counting Imaging,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5368, pp. 457-465, 2004 |
33 | Davidson, D. W., Watt, J., Tlustos, L., Mikulec, B., Campbell, M., Mathieson, K., O'Shea, V., Smith, K. M. and Rahman, M., 'Detective Quantum Efficiency of the Medipix Pixel Detector,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 50, No. 5, pp. 1659-1663, 2003 DOI ScienceOn |
34 | Annovazzi, A., Amendolia, S. R., Bigongiari, A., Bisogni, M. G., Catarsi, F., Cesqui, F., Cetronio, A., Colombo, F., Delogu, P., Fantacci, M. E., Gilberti, A., Lanzieri, C., Lavagna, S., Novelli, M., Passuello, G., Paternoster, G., Pieracci, M., Poletti, M., Quattrocchi, M., Rosso, V., Stefanini, A., Testa, A. and Venturelli, L., 'A GaAs Pixel Detectors-based Digital Mammographic System: Performances and Imaging Tests Results,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 576, No. 1, pp. 154-159, 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
35 | Thunberg, S., Francke, T., Egerstrom, J., Eklund, M., Ericsson, L., Kristoffersson, T., Peskov, V., Rantanen, J., Sokolov, S., Svedenhag, P., Ullberg, C. K. and Weber, N., 'Evaluation of a Photon Counting Mammography System,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4682, pp. 202-208, 2002 |
36 | Maidment, A., Albert, M., Thunberg, S., Adelow, L, Blom, O., Egerstrom, J., Eklund, M., Francke, T., Jordung, U., Kristoffersson, T., Lindman, K., Lindqvist, L, Marchal, D., Olla, H., Penton, E., Rantanen, J., Solokov, S., Ullberg, C. and Weber, N., 'Evaluation of a Photon-counting Breast Tomosynthesis Imaging System,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5745, pp. 572-582, 2005 |
37 | Jenkins, G. M. and Watts, D. G., 'Spectral Analysis and Its Application,' Holden-Day Series in Time Series Analysis, Holden-Day, 1968 |
38 | Giger, M. L., Doi, K. and Metz, C. E., 'Investigation of Basic Imaging Properties in Digital Radiography. 2. Noise Wiener Spectrum,' Med. Phys., Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 797-805, 1984 DOI ScienceOn |
39 | Dainty, J. C. and Shaw, R., 'Image Science,' Academic Press, 1974 |
40 | Doi, K., 'Field Characteristics of Geometric Unsharpness Due to the X-ray Tube Focal Spot,' Med. Phys., Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 15-20, 1977 DOI ScienceOn |
41 | Rabbani, M. and van Metter, R. L., 'Analysis of Signal and Noise Propagation for Several Imaging Mechanisms,' J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, Vol. 6, No. 8, pp. 1156-1164, 1989 DOI |
42 | Cunningham, I. A. and Yao, J., 'Cascaded Models and the DQE of Flat-panel Imagers: Noise Aliasing, Secondary Quantum Noise and Reabsorption,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4682, pp. 61-72, 2002 |
43 | Sattarivand, M. and Cunningham, I. A., 'Computational Engine for Development of Complex Cascaded Models of Signal and Noise in X-ray Imaging Systems,' IEEE Trans. Med. Imag., Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 211-222, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
44 | Zhao, W. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Digital Radiology Using Active Matrix Readout of Amorphous Selenium: Theoretical Analysis of Detective Quantum Efficiency,' Med. Phys., Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1819-1833, 1997 DOI ScienceOn |
45 | Zhao, W., Ji, W. G. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Effects of Characteristic X rays on the Noise Power Spectra and Detective Quantum Efficiency of Photoconductive X-ray Detectors,' Med. Phys., Vol. 28, No. 10, pp. 2039-2049, 2001 DOI ScienceOn |
46 | Kim, H. K., Yun, S. M., Ko, J. S., Cho, G. and Graeve, T., 'Cascade Modeling of Pixelated Scintillator Detectors for X-ray Imaging,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 1357-1366, 2008 DOI ScienceOn |
47 | Richard, S. and Siewerdsen, J. H., 'Optimization of Dual-energy Imaging Systems Using Generalized NEQ and Imaging Task,' Med. Phys., Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 127-139, 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
48 | Graeve, T., Huang, W., Alexander, S. M. and Li, Y., 'Amorphous Silicon Image Sensor for X-ray Applications,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 2415, pp. 177-181, 1995 |
49 | Maolinbay, M., Zimmerman, T., Yarema, R. J., Antonuk, L. E., El-Mohri, Y. and Yeakey, M., 'Design and Performance of a Low Noise, 128-channel ASIC Preamplifier for Readout of Active Matrix Flat-panel Imaging Arrays,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 485, No. 1, pp. 661-675, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
50 | Borasi, G., Nitrosi, A., Ferrari, P. and Tassoni, D., 'On Site Evaluation of Three Flat Panel Detectors for Digital Radiography,' Med. Phys., Vol. 30, No. 7, pp. 1719-1731, 2003 DOI ScienceOn |
51 | Lazzari, B., Belli, G., Gori, G. and Rosselli Del Turco, M., 'Physical Characteristics of Five Clinical Systems for Digital Mammography,' Med. Phys., Vol. 34, No. 7, pp. 2730-2743 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
52 | Rowlands, J. A. and Yorkston, J., 'Flat Panel Detectors for Digital Radiography,' Chapter 4, Handbook of Medical Imaging: Vol. 1. Physics and Psychophysics (Eds. Beutel, J., Kundel, H. L. and Van Metter, R.), SPIE, pp. 223-328, 2000 |
53 | Hack, M., Guha, S. and Shur, M., 'Photoconductivity and Recombination in Amorphous Silicon Alloys,' Phys. Rev. B, Vol. 30, No. 12, pp. 6991-6999, 1984 DOI |
54 | Yarema, R. J., Zimmerman, T., Srage, J., Antonuk, L. E., Berry, J., Huang, W. and Maolinbay, M., 'A Programmable, Low Noise, Multichannel ASIC for Readout of Pixelated Amorphous Silicon Arrays,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 439, No. 2-3, pp. 413-417, 2000 DOI |
55 | Yorker, J. G., Jeromin, L. S., Lee, D. L., Palecki, E. F., Golden, K. P. and Zhenxue, J., 'Characterization of a Full-field Digital Mammography Detector Based on Direct X-ray Conversion in Selenium,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4682, pp. 21-29, 2002 |
56 | Sonoda, M., Takano, M., Miyahara, J. and Kato, H., 'Computed Radiography Utilizing Scanning laser Stimulated Luminescence,' Radiology, Vol. 148, No. 3, pp. 833-838, 1983 DOI |
57 | Gagne, R. M., Quinn, P. W., Chen, L., Myers, K. J. and Doyle, R. J., 'Optically Coupled Digital Radiography: Sources of Inefficiency,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4320, pp. 156-162, 2001 |
58 | Granfors, P. R., Albagli, D. Tkaczyk, J. E., Aufrichtig, R., Netel, H., Brunst, G., Boudry, J. and Luo, D., 'Performance of a Flat Panel Cardiac Detector,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4320, pp. 77-84, 2001 |
59 | Rivetti, S., Lanconelli, N., Campanini, R., Bertolini, M., Borasi, G., Nitrosi, A., Danielli, C., Angelini, L. and Maggi, S., 'Comparison of Different Commercial FFDM Units by Means of Physical Characterization and Contrast-detail Analysis,' Med. Phys., Vol. 33, No. 11, pp. 4198-4209, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
60 | Karim, K. S., Nathan, A. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Alternative Pixel Architectures for Large Area Medical Imaging,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4320, pp. 35-46, 2001 |
61 | Zhao, B. and Zhao, W., 'Temporal Performance of Amorphous Selenium Mammography Detectors,' Med. Phys., Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 128-136, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
62 | Francke, T., Eklund, M., Ericsson, L, Kristoffersson, T., Peskov, V. N., Rantanen, J., Sokolov, S., Soderman, J. E., Ullberg, C. K. and Weber, N., 'Dose Reduction Using Photon Counting X-ray Imaging,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4320, pp. 127-132, 2001 |
63 | Frojdh, C., Graafsma, H., Nilsson, H. E. and Ponchut, C., 'Characterization of a Pixellated CdTe Detector with Single-photon Processing Readout,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 563, No. 1, pp. 128-132, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
64 | El-Mohri, Y., Antonuk, L. E., Zhao, Q., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Du, H. and Sawant, A., 'Performance of a High Fill Factor, Indirect Detection Prototype Flat-panel Imager for Mammography,' Med. Phys., Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 315-327, 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
65 | De Geronimo, G., O'Connor, P., Radeka, V. and Yu, B., 'Front-end Electronics for Imaging Detectors,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 471, No. 1-2, pp. 192-199, 2001 DOI |
66 | Holl, I., Lorenz, E. and Mageras, G., 'A Measurement of Light Yield of Some Common Inorganic Scintillators,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 105-109, 1988 DOI ScienceOn |
67 | Street, R. A., Ready, S. E., Van Schuylenbergh, K., Ho, J., Boyce, J. B. and Nylen, P., 'Comparison of and for Direct Detection Active Matrix X-ray Image Sensors,' J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 91, No. 5., pp. 3345-3355, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
68 | Wagner, R. F. and Brown, D. G., 'Unified SNR Analysis of Medical Imaging Systems,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 30, No. 6, pp. 489-518, 1985 DOI ScienceOn |
69 | ICRU 54, 'Medical Imaging - the Assessment of Image Quality,' International Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements, 1995 |
70 | Rowlands, J. A., 'The Physics of Computed Radiography,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 47, No. 23, pp. R123-R166, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
71 | Weisfield, R. L., Hartney, M., Schneider, R., Aflatooni, K. and Lujan, R., 'High Performance Amorphous Silicon Image Sensor for X-ray Diagnostic Medical Imaging Application,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 3659, pp. 307-317, 1999 |
72 | Weisfield, R. L., Yao, W., Speaker, T., Zhou, K., Colbeth, R. and Proano, C., 'Performance Analysis of a 127-micron Pixel Large-area TFT/Photodiode Array with Boosted Fill Factor,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5368, pp. 338-348, 2004 |
73 | Zhao, W., Hunt, D. C., Tanioka, K. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Indirect Flat-panel Detector with Avalanche Gain,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5368, pp. 150-161, 2004 |
74 | Spear W. E. and LeComber P. G., 'Substitutional Doping of Amorphous Silicon,' Solid State Comm., Vol. 17, No. 9, pp. 1193-1196, 1975 DOI ScienceOn |
75 | Papoulis, A., 'Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes,' McGraw-Hill, 1991 |
76 | Schieber, M., Zuch, A., Gilboa, H. and Zentai, G., 'Reviewing Polycrystalline Mercuric Iodide X-ray Detectors,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 2385-2391, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
77 | Rabbani, M. Shaw, R. and van Metter, R. L., 'Detective Quantum Efficiency of Imaging Systems with Amplifying and Scattering Mechanisms,' J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 895-901, 1987 DOI |
78 | Siewerdsen, J. H., Antonuk, L. E., El-Mohri, Y., Yorkston, J., Huang, W. and Cunningham, I. A., 'Signal, Noise Power Spectrum and Detective Quantum Efficiency of Indirect-detection Flat-panel Imagers for Diagnostic Radiology,' Med. Phys., Vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 614-628, 1998 DOI ScienceOn |
79 | Hunt, D. C., Tanioka, K. and Rowlands, J. A., 'X-ray Imaging Using Avalanche Multiplication in Amorphous Selenium: Investigation of Depth Dependent Avalanche Noise,' Med. Phys., Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 976-986, 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
80 | Cho, M. K., Kim, H. K. Graeve, T., Yun, S. M., Lim, C. H., Cho, H. and Kim, J.-M., 'Measurements of X-ray Imaging Performance of Granular Phosphors with Direct-coupled CMOS Sensors,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 1338-1343, 2008 DOI ScienceOn |
81 | Weckler, G., 'Operation of p-n Junction Photodetectors in a Photon Flux Integrating Mode,' IEEE J. Solid-Sate Circuit, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 65-73, 1967 DOI |
82 | Huang, W., Antonuk, L. E., Berry, J., Maolinbay, M., Martelli, C., Mody, P., Nassif, S. and Yeakey, M., 'An Asynchronous, Pipelined, Electronic Acquisition System for Active Matrix Flat-panel Imagers (AMFPIs),' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 431, No. 1-2, pp. 273-284, 1999 DOI |
83 | Mikulec, B., 'Development of Segmented Semiconductor Arrays for Quantum Imaging,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 510, No. 1-2, pp. 1-23, 2003 DOI ScienceOn |
84 | Richard, S., Siewerdsen, J. H., Jaffray, D. A., Moseley, D. J. and Bakhtiar, B., 'Generalized DQE Analysis of Radiographic and Dual-energy Imaging Using Flat-panel Detectors,' Med. Phys., Vol. 32, No. 5, pp. 1397-1413, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
85 | Kim, H. K., Cho, G., Lee, S. W., Shin, Y. H. and Cho, H. S., 'Development and Evaluation of a Digital Radiographic System Based on CMOS Image Sensor,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 662-666, 2001 DOI ScienceOn |
86 | Zhao, W., DeCrescenzo, G. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Investigation of Lag and Ghosting in Amorphous Selenium Flat-Panel X-ray Detectors,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4682, pp. 9-20, 2002 |
87 | Zhao, W., Waechter, D. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Digital Radiology Using Active Matrix Readout of Amorphous Selenium: Radiation Hardness of Cadmium Selenide Thin Film Transistors,' Med. Phys., Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 527-538, 1998 DOI ScienceOn |
88 | Kameshima, T., Kaifu, N., Takami, E., Morishita, M. and Yamazaki, T., 'Novel Large Area MIS-type X-ray Image Sensor for Digital Radiography,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 3336, pp. 453-462, 1998 |
89 | Zhao, W., Li, D., Reznik, A., Lui, B., Hunt, D. C., Tanioka, K. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Indirect Flat-panel Detector with Avalanche Gain: Fundamental Feasibility Investigation for SHARP-AMFPI (Scintillator HARP Active Matrix Flat Panel Imager),' Med. Phys. Vol. 32, No. 9, pp. 2954-2966, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
90 | Swank, R. K., 'Absorption and Noise in X-ray Phosphors,' J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 44, No. 9, pp. 4199-4203, 1973 DOI ScienceOn |
91 | Akbarpour, R., Friedman, S. N., Siewerdsen, J. H., Neary, J. D. and Cunningham, I. A., 'Signal and Noise Transfer in Spatiotemporal Quantum-based Imaging Systems,' J. Opt. Soc. Am. A, Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. B151-B164, 2007 DOI |
92 | Granfors, P. R. and Aufrichtig, R., 'Performance of a Amorphous Silicon Flat Panel X-ray Detector for Radiographic Imaging Applications,' Med. Phys., Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 1324-1331, 2000 DOI ScienceOn |
93 | Zhao, W. and Rowlands, J. A., 'X-ray Imaging Using Amorphous Selenium: Feasibility of a Flat Panel Self-scanned Detector for Digital Radiology,' Med. Phys., Vol. 22, No. 10, pp. 1595-1604, 1995 DOI ScienceOn |
94 | Rau, A. W., Bakueva, L. and Rowlands, J. A., 'The X-ray Time of Flight Method for Investigation of Ghosting in Amorphous Selenium-based Flat Panel Medical X-ray Imagers,' Med. Phys., Vol. 32, No. 10, pp. 3160-3177, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
95 | Bloomquist, A. K., Yaffe, M. J., Mawdsley, G. E., Hunter, D. M. and Beideck, D. J., 'Lag and Ghosting in a Clinical Flat-panel Selenium Digital Mammography System,' Med. Phys., Vol. 33, No. 8, pp. 2998-3005, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
96 | Shaw, J., Albagli, D., Wei, C. Y. and Granfors, P. R., 'Enhanced a-Si/CsI-based Flat panel X-ray Detector for Mammography,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5368, pp. 370-378, 2004 |
97 | Tao, S., Gu, Z. H. and Nathan, A., 'Fabrication of Gd2O2S:Tb Based Phosphor Films Coupled with Photodetectors for X-ray Imaging Applications,' J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 1091-1094, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
98 | Sauli, F., 'GEM: a New Concept for Electron Amplification in Gas Detectors,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 386, No. 2-3, pp. 531-534, 1997 DOI ScienceOn |
99 | Rossmann, K., 'The Spatial Frequency Spectrum: a Means for Studying the Quality of Radiographic Imaging Systems,' Radiology, Vol. 90, No. 1, pp. 1-13, 1968 DOI |
100 | Munro, P. and Bouius, D. C., 'X-ray Quantum Limited Portal Imaging Using Amorphous Silicon Flat-panel Arrays,' Med. Phys., Vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 689-702, 1998 DOI ScienceOn |
101 | Rocha, J. G., Ramos, N. F., Lanceros-Mendez, S., Wolffenbuttel, R.. F. and Correia, J. H., 'CMOS X-rays Detector Array Based on Scintillating Light Guides,' Sensors and Actuators A, Vol. 110, No. 1-3, pp. 119-123, 2004 DOI |
102 | Cha, B. K., Bae, J. H., Kim, B.-J., Jeon, H. and Cho, G., 'Performance Studies of a Monolithic Scintillator-CMOS Image Sensor for X-ray Application,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 591, No. 1, pp. 113-116, 2008 DOI ScienceOn |
103 | Kasap, S. O. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Photoconductor Selection for Digital Flat Panel X-ray Image Detectors Based on the Dark Current,' J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 615-620, 2000 DOI ScienceOn |
104 | Hajdok, G., Yao, J., Battista, J. J. and Cunningham, I. A., 'Signal and Noise Transfer Properties of Photoelectric Interactions in Diagnostic X-ray Imaging Detectors,' Med. Phys., Vol. 33, No. 10, pp. 3601-3620, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
105 | Kim, H. K., 'Generalized Cascaded Model to Assess Noise Transfer in Scintillator-based X-ray Imaging Detectors,' Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 89, Issue 23, pp. 233504-1-233504-3, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
106 | Chotas, H. G., Dobbins, J. T. III and Ravin, C. E., 'Principles of Digital Radiography with Large-Area, Electronically Readable Detectors: a Review of the Basics,' Radiology, Vol. 210, No. 3, pp. 595-599, 1999 DOI |
107 | Kasap, S. O., Zahangir Kabir, M. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Recent Advances in X-ray Photoconductors for Direct Conversion X-ray Image Detectors,' Cur. Appl. Phys., Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 288-292, 2006 DOI ScienceOn |
108 | Zhao, W., Li, D., Rowlands, J. A., Egami, N., Takiguchi, Y., Nanba, M., Honda, Y., Ohkawa, Y., Kubota, M., Tanioka, K., Suzuki, K. and Kawai, T., 'An Indirect Flat-panel Detector with Avalanche Gain for Low Dose X-ray Imaging: SAPHIRE (Scintillator Avalanche Photoconductor with High Resolution Emitter Readout),' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 6913, pp. 69130M-1-69130M-11, 2008 |
109 | Ito, H., Matsubara, S., Takahashi, T., Shimada, T. and Takeuchi, H., 'Integrated Radiation Detectors with a-Si Photodiodes on Ceramic Scintillators,' Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 28, No. 8, pp. L1476-L1479, 1989 DOI |
110 | Nikl, M., 'Scintillation Detectors for X-rays,' Meas. Sci. Technol., Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. R37-R54, 2006 DOI |
111 | Haugen, C., Kasap, S. O. and Rowlands, J. A., 'X-ray Irradiation Induced Bulk Space Charge in Stabilized a-Se X-ray Photoconductors,' J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 84, No. 10, pp. 5495-5501, 1998 DOI |
112 | Monnin, P., Gutierrez, D., Bulling, S., Guntern, D. and Verdun, F. R., 'A Comparison of the Performance of Digital Mammography Systems,' Med. Phys., Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 906-914, 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
113 | El-Mohri, Y., Antonuk, L. E., Zhao, Q., Maolinbay, M., Rong, X., Jee, K.-W., Nassif, S. and Cionca, C., 'A Quantitative Investigation of Additive Noise Reduction for Active Matrix Flat-panel Imagers Using Compensation Lines,' Med. Phys., Vol. 27, No. 8, pp. 1855-1864, 2000 DOI ScienceOn |
114 | Beuville, E., Belding, M., Costello, A., Hansen, R. and Petronio, S., 'High Performance, Low-noise, 128-channel Readout Integrated Circuit for Flat Panel X-ray Detector Systems,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5368, pp. 714-725, 2004 |
115 | Gobbi, D. G., Dixit, M. S., Dubeau, J. and Johns, P. C., 'Photon-counting Radiography with the Gas Microstrip Detector,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol., 44, No. 5, pp. 1317-1335, 1999 DOI ScienceOn |
116 | Antonuk, L. E., El-Mohri, Y., Jee, K.-W., Zhao, Q., Sawant, A., Su, Z. and Street, R. A., 'Technological Pathways for 21st Century Active Matrix X-ray Imager Development,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4682, pp. 1-8, 2002 |
117 | Siewerdsen, J. H. and Jaffray, D. A., 'A Ghost Story: Spatio-temporal Response Characteristics of an Indirect-detection Flat-panel Imager,' Med. Phys., Vol. 26, No. 8, pp. 1624-1641, 1999 |
118 | Street, R. A., 'Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon,' Cambridge University Press, 1991 |
119 | Vedantham, S., Karellas, A., Suryanarayanan, S., Albagli, D., Han, S., Tkaczyk, E. J., Landberg, C. E., Opsahl-Ong, B., Granfors, P. R., Levis, I., D'Orsi, C. J. and Hendrick, R. E., 'Full Breast Digital Mammography with an Amorphous Silicon-based Flat Panel Detector: Physical Characteristics of a Clinical Prototype,' Med. Phys., Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 558-567, 2000 DOI ScienceOn |
120 | Cheung, L. K., Jing, Z., Bogdanovich, S., Golden, K., Robinson, S., Beliaevskaia, E. and Parikh, S., 'Image Performance of a New Amorphous Selenium Flat Panel X-ray Detector Designed for Digital Breast Tomosynthesis,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 5745, pp. 1282-1290, 2005 |
121 | Bertolucci, E., Maiorino, M., Mettivier, G., Montesi, M. C. and Russo, P., 'Preliminary Test of an Imaging Probe for Nuclear Medicine Using Hybrid Pixel Detectors,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 487, No. 1-2, pp. 193-201, 2002 DOI |
122 | Barrett, H. H. and Swindell, W., 'Radiological Imaging - the Theory of Image Foundation, Detection, and Processing,' Academic Press, 1981 |
123 | Llopart, X., Campbell, M., Dinapoli, R., San Segundo, D. and Pernigotti, E., 'Medipix2: a 64-k Pixel Readout Chip with Square Elements Working in Single Photon Counting Mode,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 2279-2283, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
124 | Avila, C., Lopez, J., Sanabria, J. C., Baldazzi, G., Bollini, D., Gombia, M., Cabal, A. E., Ceballos, C., Diz Garcia, A., Gambaccini, M., Taibi, A., Sarnelli, A., Tuffanelli, A., Giubellino, P., Marzari-Chiesa, A., Prino, F., Tomassi, E., Grybos, P., Idzik, M., Swientek, K., Wiacek, P., Montano, L. M., Ramello, L. and Sitta, M., 'Contrast Cancellation Technique Applied to Digital X-ray Imaging Using Silicon Strip Detectors,' Med. Phys., Vol. 32, No. 12, pp. 3755-3766, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
125 | Metz, C. E. and Doi, K., 'Transfer Function Analysis of Radiographic Imaging Systems,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 1079-1106, 1979 DOI ScienceOn |
126 | Daniel, J. H., Krusor, B., Apte, R. B., Mulato, M., Van Schuylenbergh, K., Lau, R., Do, T., Street, R. A., Goredema, A. and Boils-Boissier, D. C., 'Micro-electro-mechanical System Fabrication Technology Applied to Large Area X-ray Image Sensor Arrays,' J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 1219-1223, 2001 DOI ScienceOn |
127 | Du, H., Antonuk, L. E., El-Mohri, Y., Zhao, Q., Su, Z., Yamamoto, J. and Wang, Y., 'Investigation of the Signal Behavior at Diagnostic Energies of Prototype, Direct Detection, Active Matrix, Flat-panel Imagers Incorporating Polycrystalline ,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 53, No. 5, pp. 1325-1351, 2008 DOI ScienceOn |
128 | Shikhaliev, P. M., Xu, T. and Molloi, S., 'Photon Counting Computed Tomography: Concept and Initial Results,' Med. Phys., Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 427-436, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
129 | Rossmann, K., 'Measurement of the Modulation Transfer Function of Radiographic Systems Containing Fluorescent Screens,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 551-557, 1964 DOI ScienceOn |
130 | Que, W. and Rowlands, J. A., 'X-ray Photogeneration in Amorphous Selenium: Geminate versus Columnar Recombination,' Phys. Rev. B, Vol. 51, No. 16, pp. 10500-10507, 1995 DOI |
131 | Matsuura, N., Zhao, W., Huang, Z. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Digital Radiology Using Active Matrix Readout: Amplified Pixel Detector Array for Fluoroscopy,' Med. Phys., Vol. 26, No. 5, pp. 672-681, 1999 DOI ScienceOn |
132 | Kim, H. K., Ahn, J. K. and Cho, G., 'Development of a Lens-coupled CMOS Detector for X-ray Inspection System,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 545, No. 1-2, pp. 210-216, 2005 DOI |
133 | Giomataris, Y., Rebourgeard, Ph., Robert, J. P. and Charpak, G., 'MICROMEGAS: a High-granularity Position-sensitive Gaseous Detectors for High Particle-flux Environments,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 376, No. 1, pp. 29-35, 1996 DOI ScienceOn |
134 | Cunningham, I. A., 'Applied Linear-systems Theory,' Chapter 2, Handbook of Medical Imaging: Vol. 1. Physics and Psychophysics (Eds. Beutel, J., Kundel, H. L. and Van Metter, R.), SPIE, pp. 79-159, 2000 |
135 | Gaskill, J. D., 'Linear Systems, Fourier Transforms, and Optics,' John Wiley & Sons, 1978 |
136 | Yaffe, M. J. and Rowlands, J. A., 'X-ray Detectors for Digital Radiography,' Phys. Med. Biol. Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 1-39, 1997 DOI ScienceOn |
137 | Rowlands, J. and Kasap, S., 'Amorphous Semiconductors Usher in Digital X-ray Imaging,' Phys. Today, Vol. 50, No. 11, pp. 24-30, 1997 |
138 | Ducourant, T., Michel, M. Vieux, G., Peppler, T., Trochet, J. C., Schulz, R. F., Bastiaens, R. J. M. and Busse, F., 'Optimization of Key Building Blocks for a Large-area Radiographic and Fluoroscopic Dynamic Digital X-ray Detector Based on a-Si:H/CsI:Tl Flat Panel Technology,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 3977, pp. 14-25, 2000 |
139 | Yorkston, J., 'Recent Developments in Digital Radiography Detectors,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 580, No. 2, pp. 974-985, 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
140 | Street, R. A., 'Large Area Image Sensor Arrays,' Chapter 4, Technology and Applications of Amorphous Silicon (Ed. R. A. Street), Springer-Verlag, pp. 147-221, 2000 |
141 | Siewerdsen, J. H., Antonuk, L. E., El-Mohri, Y., Yorkston, J., Huang, W., Boudry, J. M. and Cunningham, I. A., 'Empirical and Theoretical Investigation of the Noise Performance of Indirect Detection, Active Matrix Flat-panel Imagers (AMFPIs) for Diagnostic Radiology,' Med. Phys., Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 71-89, 1997 DOI ScienceOn |
142 | Ng, T. N., Lujan, R. A., Sambandan, S., Street, R. A., Limb, S. and Wong, W. S., 'Low Temperature a-Si:H Photodiodes and Flexible Image Sensor Arrays Patterned by Digital Lithography,' Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 91, No. 6, pp. 063505-1-063505-3, 2007 DOI ScienceOn |
143 | Rossmann, K., 'Point Spread-function, Line Spread-function, and Modulation Transfer Function. Tools for the Study of Imaging Systems,' Radiology, Vol. 93, No. 2, pp. 257-272, 1969 DOI |
144 | Shaw, R., 'The Equivalent Quantum Efficiency of the Photographic Process,' J. Photogr. Sc., Vol. 11, pp. 199-204, 1963 DOI |
145 | Metz, C. E., Wagner, R. F., Doi, K., Brown, D. G., Nishikawa, R. M. and Myers, K. J., 'Toward Consensus on Quantitative Assessment of Medical Imaging Systems,' Med. Phys., Vol. 22, No. 7, pp. 1057-1061, 1995 DOI ScienceOn |
146 | Papoulis, A., 'Systems and Transforms with Applications in Optics,' McGraw-Hill, 1968 |
147 | Weil, E., 'Some Bibliographical Notes on the First Publication on the Roentgen Rays,' Isis, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 362-365, 1938 DOI ScienceOn |
148 | Moy, J.-P., 'Recent Developments in X-ray Imaging Detectors,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 442, No. 1-3, pp. 26-37, 2000 DOI |
149 | Stevels, A. L. N. and Schrama de Pauw, A. D. M., 'Vapor-deposited CsI:Na Layers, I. Morphologic and Crystallographic Properties, II. Screen for Application in X-ray Imaging Devices,' Philips Res. Rept., Vol. 29, pp. 340-362, 1974 |
150 | Street, R. A., Ready, S. E, Melekhov, L., Ho, J., Zuck, A. and Breen, B., 'Approaching the Theoretical X-ray Sensitivity with HgI2 Direct Detection Image Sensors,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 4682, pp. 414-422, 2002 |
151 | Antonuk, L. E., Jee, K.-W., El-Mohri, Y., Maolinbay, M., Nassif, S., Rong, X., Zhao, Q., Siewerdsen, J. H., Street, R. A. and Shah, K. S., 'Strategies to Improve the Signal and Noise Performance of Active Matrix, Flat-panel Imagers for Diagnostic X-ray Applications,' Med. Phys., Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 289-306, 2000 DOI ScienceOn |
152 | Rahn, J. T., Lemmi, F., Weisfield, R. L., Lujan, R., Mei, P. Lu, J.-P., Ho, J., Ready, S. E., Apte, R. B., Nylen, P., Boyce, J. B. and Street, R. A., 'High Resolution, High Fill Factor a-Si:H Sensor Arrays for Medical Imaging,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 3659, pp. 510-517, 1999 |
153 | Lu, J. P., Van Schuylenbergh, K., Ho, J., Wang, Y., Boyce, J. B. and Street, R. A., 'Flat Panel Imagers with Pixel Level Amplifiers Based on Polycrystalline Silicon Thin-film Transistor Technology,' Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 80, No. 24, pp. 4656-4658, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
154 | Yao, J. and Cunningham, I. A., 'Parallel Cascades: New Ways to Describe Noise Transfer in Medical Imaging Systems,' Med. Phys., Vol. 28, No. 10, pp. 2020-2038, 2001 DOI ScienceOn |
155 | James, J. J., Davies, A. G., Cowen, A. R. and O'Connor, P. J., 'Developments in Digital Radiography: An Equipment Update,' Eur. Radiol., Vol. 11, No. 12, pp. 2616-2626, 2001 DOI ScienceOn |
156 | Spahn, M., 'Flat Detectors and Their Clinical Applications,' Eur. Radiol., Vol. 15, No. 9, pp. 1934-1947, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
157 | Cunningham, I. A., Westmore, M. S. and Fenster, A., 'A Spatial-frequency Dependent Quantum Accounting Diagram and Detective Quantum Efficiency Model of Signal and Noise Propagation in Cascaded Imaging Systems,' Med. Phys., Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 417-427, 1994 DOI ScienceOn |
158 | Guha, S. and Hack, M., 'Dominant Recombination Process in Amorphous Silicon Alloys,' J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 1683-1685, 1985 DOI |
159 | Li, D. and Zhao, W., 'SAPHIRE (Scintillator Avalanche Photoconductor with High Resolution Emitter Readout) for Low Dose X-ray Imaging: Spatial Resolution,' Med. Phys. Vol. 35, No. 7, pp. 3151-3161, 2008 DOI ScienceOn |
160 | Barrett, H. H. and Meyers, K. J., 'Foundations of Image Science,' Wiley, 2004 |
161 | Zhao, W., Law, J., Waechter, D., Huang, Z. and Rowlands, J. A., 'Digital Radiology Using Active Matrix Readout of Amorphous Selenium: Detectors with High Voltage Protection,' Med. Phys., Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 539-549, 1998 DOI ScienceOn |
162 | Lee, D. L., Cheung, L. K. and Jeromin, L. S., 'A New Digital Detector for Projection Radiography,' Proc. SPIE, Vol. 2432, pp. 237-249, 1995 |
163 | van Eijk, C. W. E., 'Inorganic Scintillators in Medical Imaging,' Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 47, No. 8, pp. R85-R106, 2002 DOI ScienceOn |
164 | Abkowitz, M., 'Density of States in a-Se from Combined Analysis of Xerographic Potentials and Transient Transport Data,' Phil. Mag. Lett., Vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 53-57, 1988 DOI ScienceOn |
165 | Kleimann, P., Linnros, J., Frojdh, C. and Petersson, C. S., 'An X-ray Imaging Pixel Detector Based on Scintillator Filled Pores in a Silicon Matrix,' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A, Vol. 460, No. 1, pp. 15-19, 2001 DOI ScienceOn |
166 | Mettivier, G., Montesi, M. C. and Russo, P., 'Digital Autoradiography with a Medipix2 Hybrid Silicon Pixel Detector,' IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 46-50, 2005 DOI ScienceOn |
167 | Paul, K. E., Wong, W. S., Ready, S. E. and Street, R. A., 'Additive Jet Printing of Polymer Thin-film Transistors,' Appl. Phys. Lett., Vol. 83, No. 10, pp. 2070-2072, 2003 DOI ScienceOn |