Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea governments (MSIT) (No. NRF-2021M1A7A4092589).
References
- R.A. Pitts, S. Carpentier, F. Escourbiac, T. Hirai, V. Komarov, A.S. Kukushkin, S. Lisgo, A. Loarte, M. Merola, R. Mitteau, A.R. Raffray, M. Shimada, P.C. Stangeby, Physics basis and design of the ITER plasma-facing components, J. Nucl. Mater. 415 (2011) S957-S964, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JNUCMAT.2011.01.114.
- N. Holtkamp, The status of the ITER design, Fusion Eng. Des. 84 (2009) 98-105, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUSENGDES.2008.12.119.
- V. Barabash, A. Peacock, S. Fabritsiev, G. Kalinin, S. Zinkle, A. Rowcliffe, J.W. Rensman, A.A. Tavassoli, P. Marmy, P.J. Karditsas, F. Gillemot, M. Akiba, Materials challenges for ITER e current status and future activities, J. Nucl. Mater. (2007) 367-370, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JNUCMAT.2007.03.017, 21-32.
- M. Johnston, F. Libby, Tritium Nature' (1951) 5-6.
- S. Cho, M.Y. Ahn, D.W. Lee, Y.H. Park, E.H. Lee, J.S. Yoon, T.K. Kim, C.W. Lee, Y.H. Yoon, S.K. Kim, H.G. Jin, K.I. Shin, Y. Il Jung, Y.H. Jeong, Y.O. Lee, D.Y. Ku, C.S. Kim, S.C. Park, I.K. Yu, K. Jung, Overview of helium cooled ceramic reflector test blanket module development in Korea, Fusion Eng. Des. 88 (2013) 621-625, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FUSENGDES.2013.05.072.
- H. Kwast, M. Stijkel, R. Muis, R. Comrad, EXOTIC: Development of ceramic tritium breeding materials for fusion reactor blankets. The behaviour of tritium in: lithium aluminate lithium oxide lithium silicates lithium zirconates (ECN-C-95-123) Netherlands, https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?org_Q=RN:28012297, 1987.
- C.E. Johnson, K.R. Kummerer, E. Roth, Ceramic breeder materials (CONF871036-12) Netherlands, https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:19052891, 1987.
- G. Ran, C. Xiao, X. Chen, Y. Gong, L. Zhao, H. Wang, X. Wang, Tritium release behavior of Li4SiO4 pebbles with high densities and large grain sizes, J. Nucl. Mater. 492 (2017) 189-194, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2017.05.029.
- Y.Y. Liu, M.C. Billone, A.K. Fischer, S.W. Tam, R.G. Clemmer, G.W. Hollenberg, Solid tritium breeder materials - Li2O AND LiAlO2: a data base review, Fusion Technol. 8 (1985) 1970-1984, https://doi.org/10.13182/fst85-a24573.
- M. Kobayashi, K. Kawasaki, T. Fujishima, Y. Miyahara, Y. Oya, K. Okuno, Release kinetics of tritium generated in lithium-enriched Li2+xTiO3 by thermal neutron irradiation, Fusion Eng. Des. 87 (2012) 471-475, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2011.12.020.
- T. Tanifuji, D. Yamaki, S. Nasu, K. Noda, Tritium release behavior from neutron-irradiated Li2TiO3 single crystal, J. Nucl. Mater. 258-263 (1998) 543-548, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3115(98)00103-2.
- M.E. Sawan, M.A. Abdou, Physics and technology conditions for attaining tritium self-sufficiency for the DT fuel cycle, Fusion Eng. Des. 81 (2006) 1131-1144, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2005.07.035.
- I.R. Maemunah, Z. Su'ud, A. Waris, D. Irwanto, Study on fusion blanket with ceramic solid as tritium breeding material, J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2072 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2072/1/012004, 0-7.
- E. Carella, M.T. Hernandez, High lithium content silicates: a comparative study between four routes of synthesis, Ceram. Int. 40 (2014) 9499-9508, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CERAMINT.2014.02.023.
- X. Wu, Z. Wen, X. Xu, X. Wang, J. Lin, Synthesis and characterization of Li4SiO4 nano-powders by a water-based solegel process, J. Nucl. Mater. 392 (2009) 471-475, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JNUCMAT.2009.04.010.
- H. Zhang, H. Guo, M. Ye, Z. Li, H. Huang, Investigation on the packing behaviors and mechanics of Li4SiO4 pebble beds by discrete element method, Fusion Eng. Des. 125 (2017) 551-555, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2017.04.049.
- J.M. Miller, H.B. Hamilton, J.D. Sullivan, Testing of lithium titanate as an alternate blanket material, J. Nucl. Mater. 212-215 (1994) 877-880, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3115(94)90961-X.
- X. Gao, X. Chen, M. Gu, C. Xiao, S. Peng, Fabrication and characterization of Li4SiO4 ceramic pebbles by wet method, J. Nucl. Mater. 424 (2012) 210-215, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JNUCMAT.2012.02.018.
- M.M.W. Peeters, A.J. Magielsen, M.P. Stijkel, J.G. van der Laan, In-pile tritium release behaviour of lithiummetatitanate produced by extrusion-spheroidisation-sintering process in EXOTIC-9/1 in the high flux reactor, Petten, Fusion, Eng. Des. 82 (2007) 2318-2325, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2007.05.036.
- M.H.H. Kolb, R. Knitter, U. Kaufmann, D. Mundt, Enhanced fabrication process for lithium orthosilicate pebbles as breeding material, Fusion Eng. Des. 86 (2011) 2148-2151, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2011.01.104.
- T. Hoshino, F. Oikawa, Trial fabrication tests of advanced tritium breeder pebbles using sol-gel method, Fusion Eng. Des. 86 (2011) 2172-2175, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2011.01.065.
- A. Shrivastava, T. Kumar, R. Shukla, P. Chaudhuri, Li2TiO3 pebble fabrication by freeze granulation & freeze drying method, Fusion Eng. Des. 168 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2021.112411.
- S.J. Lee, Y.H. Park, M.W. Yu, Fabrication of Li2TiO3 pebbles by a freeze drying process, Fusion Eng. Des. 88 (2013) 3091-3094, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2013.09.003.
- H. Guo, Y. Shi, H. Wang, R. Chen, Q. Shi, T. Lu, Fabrication of fine-grained Li2TiO3 ceramic pebbles with enhanced crush load by rolling method: optimization of Li/Ti ratio and sintering procedure, J. Nucl. Mater. 563 (2022), 153657, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JNUCMAT.2022.153657.
- K. Tsuchiya, K. Fuchinoue, S. Saito, K. Watarumi, T. Furuya, H. Kawamura, Fabrication development of Li2O pebbles by wet process, J. Nucl. Mater. 253 (1998) 196-202, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3115(97)00312-7.
- M. Hong, Y. Zhang, Y. Mi, B. Fu, Characterization of Li2TiO3 pebbles by graphite bed process, J. Nucl. Mater. 441 (2013) 390-394, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.06.024.
- M. Hong, Y. Zhang, M. Xiang, Z. Liu, Preparation and characterization of Li4SiO4 ceramic pebbles by graphite bed method, Fusion Eng. Des. 95 (2015) 72-78, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2015.04.039.
- S.A. Yoon, N.R. Oh, A.R. Yoo, H.G. Lee, H.C. Lee, Preparation and characterization of Ta-substituted Li7La3Zr2-xO12 garnet solid electrolyte by sol-gel processing, J. Korean Ceram. Soc. 54 (2017) 278-284. https://doi.org/10.4191/kcers.2017.54.4.02
- N. Hellen, H. Park, K.N. Kim, Characterization of ZnO/TiO2 nanocomposites prepared via the sol-gel method, J. Korean Ceram. Soc. 55 (2018) 140-144, https://doi.org/10.4191/kcers.2018.55.2.10.
- S. Cho, J.S. Lee, H. Joo, Recent developments of the solution-processable and highly conductive polyaniline composites for optical and electrochemical applications, Polymers 11 (2019), https://doi.org/10.3390/polym11121965.
- N. Kakati, G. Das, Y.S. Yoon, Proton-conducting membrane based on epoxy resin-poly(vinyl alcohol)-sulfosuccinic acid blend and its nanocomposite with sulfonated multiwall carbon nanotubes for fuel-cell application, J. Kor. Phys. Soc. 68 (2016) 311-316, https://doi.org/10.3938/jkps.68.311.
- H.C. Roh, I.Y. Kim, T.Y. Ahn, H.W. Cheong, Y.S. Yoon, Influence of temperature on performance of CuV2O6 cathode for high voltage thermal battery, J. Korean Ceram. Soc. 58 (2021) 507-518, https://doi.org/10.1007/s43207-021-00129-1.
- S.J. Lukasiewicz, Spray-drying ceramic powders, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 72 (1989) 617-624, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1989.tb06184.x.
- C.J.E. Santos, A.Z. Nelson, E. Mendoza, R.H. Ewoldt, W.M. Kriven, Design and fabrication of ceramic beads by the vibration method, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 35 (2015) 3587-3594, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2015.05.018.
- A. Stunda-Zujeva, Z. Irbe, L. Berzina-Cimdina, Controlling the morphology of ceramic and composite powders obtained via spray drying e a review, Ceram. Int. 43 (2017) 11543-11551, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.05.023.
- H. Jeong, J.K. Lee, Influence of solid loading on the granulation of 3Y-TZP powder by two-fluid spray drying, J. Korean Ceram. Soc. 55 (2018) 337-343, https://doi.org/10.4191/kcers.2018.55.4.04.
- L. Zhang, H. Yang, X. Qiao, T. Zhou, Z. Wang, J. Zhang, D. Tang, D. Shen, Q. Zhang, Systematic optimization of spray drying for YAG transparent ceramics, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 35 (2015) 2391-2401, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2015.02.004.
- X. Zhou, D. Liu, H. Bu, L. Deng, H. Liu, P. Yuan, P. Du, H. Song, XRD-based quantitative analysis of clay minerals using reference intensity ratios, mineral intensity factors, Rietveld, and full pattern summation methods: a critical review, Solid Earth Sci 3 (2018) 16-29, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SESCI.2017.12.002.
- F.H. Chung, Quantitative interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns of mixtures. I. Matrix-flushing method for quantitative multicomponent analysis, J. Appl. Crystallogr. 7 (1974) 519-525, https://doi.org/10.1107/s0021889874010375.
- D. Cruz, S. Bulbulian, E. Lima, H. Pfeiffer, Kinetic analysis of the thermal stability of lithium silicates (Li4SiO4 and Li2SiO3), J. Solid State Chem. 179 (2006) 909-916, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssc.2005.12.020.
- H. Migge, Estimation of free energies for Li8SiO6 and Li4SiO4 and calculation of the phase diagram of the Li-Si-O system, J. Nucl. Mater. 151 (1988) 101-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3115(88)90061-X
- T. Tang, H. Huang, D. Luo, Solid-state reaction synthesis and mechanism of lithium silicates, Mater. Sci. Forum (2010) 654-656. https://doi.org/10.13039/10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.654-656.2006, 2006-2009.
- O. Gotzmann, Thermodynamics of ceramic breeder materials for fusion reactors, J. Nucl. Mater. 167 (1989) 213-224, https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3115(89)90444-3.
- H. Kleykamp, Enthalpies and heat capacities of Li2SiO3 and Li2ZrO3 between 298 and 1400K by drop calorimetry, Thermochim. Acta. 237 (1994) 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-6031(94)85178-6
- H.R. Ihle, R. Penzhorn, P. Schuster, View of their use as, Fusion Eng. Des. 8 (1989) 393-397. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-3796(89)80138-3
- B. Konar, M.A. Van Ende, I.H. Jung, Critical evaluation and thermodynamic optimization of the Li-O, and Li2O-SiO2 systems, J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 37 (2017) 2189-2207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.12.041.
- T. Tang, Density functional theory study of electronic structures in lithium silicates: Li2SiO3 and Li4SiO4, J. At. Mol. Sci. 1 (2010) 185-200, https://doi.org/10.4208/jams.110609.113009a.
- C.-H. Doh, A. Veluchamy, M.-W. Oh, B.-C. Han, Analysis on the formation of Li4SiO4 and Li2SiO3 through first principle calculations and comparing with experimental Data related to lithium battery, J. Electrochem. Sci. Technol. 2 (2011) 146-151, https://doi.org/10.5229/jecst.2011.2.3.146.
- A. Choudhary, R. Mazumder, S. Bhattacharyya, P. Chaudhuri, Synthesis and characterization of Li4SiO4 ceramics from rice husk ash by a solution-combustion method, Fusion Sci. Technol. 65 (2014) 273-281, https://doi.org/10.13182/FST13-666.
- M.D. Donne, G. Sordon, Heat transfer in pebble beds for fusion blankets, Fusion Technol. 17 (1990) 597-635, https://doi.org/10.13182/FST90-A29196.
- C. Xiao, X. Gao, M. Kobayashi, K. Kawasaki, H. Uchimura, K. Toda, C. Kang, X. Chen, H. Wang, S. Peng, X. Wang, Y. Oya, K. Okuno, Tritium release kinetics in lithium orthosilicate ceramic pebbles irradiated with low thermal-neutron fluence, J. Nucl. Mater. 438 (2013) 46-50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2013.02.069.
- Y.H. Park, D.Y. Ku, M.Y. Ahn, Y. Lee, S. Cho, Measurement of thermal conductivity of Li2TiO3 pebble bed by laser flash method, Fusion Eng. Des. 146 (2019) 950-954, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2019.01.122.
- M. De Beer, P.G. Rousseau, C.G. Du Toit, A review of methods to predict the effective thermal conductivity of packed pebble beds, with emphasis on the near-wall region, Nucl. Eng. Des. 331 (2018) 248-262, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2018.02.029.
- J. Reimann, S. Hermsmeyer, Thermal conductivity of compressed ceramic breeder pebble beds, Fusion Eng. Des. 61-62 (2002) 345-351, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-3796(02)00165-5.
- S. Pupeschi, R. Knitter, M. Kamlah, Effective thermal conductivity of advanced ceramic breeder pebble beds, Fusion Eng. Des. 116 (2017) 73-80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fusengdes.2017.01.026.