Archives of Craniofacial Surgery (대한두개안면성형외과학회지)

Korean Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association (대한두개안면성형외과학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Current concepts of vascular anomalies

  • Tae Hyung Kim (Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine) ;
  • Jong Woo Choi (Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine) ;
  • Woo Shik Jeong (Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine)
  • Received : 2023.06.28
  • Accepted : 2023.08.01
  • Published : 2023.08.20
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Vascular anomalies encompass a variety of malformations and tumors that can result in severe morbidity and mortality in both adults and children. Advances have been made in the classification and diagnosis of these anomalies, with the International Society for the Study of Vascular Anomalies establishing a widely recognized classification system. In recent years, notable progress has been made in genetic testing and imaging techniques, enhancing our ability to diagnose these conditions. The increasing sophistication of genetic testing has facilitated the identification of specific genetic mutations that help treatment decisions. Furthermore, imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging and computed tomography have greatly improved our capacity to visualize and detect vascular abnormalities, enabling more accurate diagnoses. When considering reconstructive surgery for facial vascular anomalies, it is important to consider both functional and cosmetic results of the procedure. Therefore, a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach involving specialists from dermatology, radiology, and genetics is often required to ensure effective management of these conditions. Overall, the treatment approach for facial vascular anomalies depends on the type, size, location, and severity of the anomaly. A thorough evaluation by a team of specialists can determine the most appropriate and effective treatment plan.

Keywords

References

  1. Wassef M, Blei F, Adams D, Alomari A, Baselga E, Berenstein A, et al. Vascular anomalies classification: recommendations from the International society for the study of vascular anomalies. Pediatrics 2015;136:e203-14.  https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-3673
  2. Samet JD, Restrepo R, Rajeswaran S, Lee EY, Green JR. Pediatric vascular malformations: imaging guidelines and recommendations. Radiol Clin North Am 2022;60:179-92.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcl.2021.08.011
  3. Andrews L, Shope C, Lee LW, Hochman M. Vascular anomalies: nomenclature and diagnosis. Dermatol Clin 2022;40:339-43.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2022.06.007
  4. Nozaki T, Nosaka S, Miyazaki O, Makidono A, Yamamoto A, Niwa T, et al. Syndromes associated with vascular tumors and malformations: a pictorial review. Radiographics 2013;33:175-95.  https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.331125052
  5. Lowe LH, Marchant TC, Rivard DC, Scherbel AJ. Vascular malformations: classification and terminology the radiologist needs to know. Semin Roentgenol 2012;47:106-17.  https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ro.2011.11.002
  6. Mulliken JB, Glowacki J. Hemangiomas and vascular malformations in infants and children: a classification based on endothelial characteristics. Plast Reconstr Surg 1982;69:412-20.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-198203000-00002
  7. Van Aalst JA, Bhuller A, Sadove AM. Pediatric vascular lesions. J Craniofac Surg 2003;14:566-83.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00001665-200307000-00032
  8. Mulliken JB, Glowacki J. Classification of pediatric vascular lesions. Plast Reconstr Surg 1982;70:120-1.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-198207000-00041
  9. Frieden IJ, Haggstrom AN, Drolet BA, Mancini AJ, Friedlander SF, Boon L, et al. Infantile hemangiomas: current knowledge, future directions: proceedings of a research workshop on infantile hemangiomas, April 7-9, 2005, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. Pediatr Dermatol 2005;22:383-406.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1470.2005.00102.x
  10. Hand JL, Frieden IJ. Vascular birthmarks of infancy: resolving nosologic confusion. Am J Med Genet 2002;108:257-64.  https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.10161
  11. MacFie CC, Jeffery SL. Diagnosis of vascular skin lesions in children: an audit and review. Pediatr Dermatol 2008;25:7-12.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1470.2007.00573.x
  12. Dubois J, Patriquin HB, Garel L, Powell J, Filiatrault D, David M, et al. Soft-tissue hemangiomas in infants and children: diagnosis using doppler sonography. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1998;171:247-52.  https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.171.1.9648798
  13. Sadick M, Muller-Wille R, Wildgruber M, Wohlgemuth WA. Vascular anomalies (part I): classification and diagnostics of vascular anomalies. Rofo 2018;190:825-35.  https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0620-8925
  14. Benzar I. A diagnostic program of vascular tumor and vascular malformations in children according to modern classification. Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove) 2017;60:19-26.  https://doi.org/10.14712/18059694.2017.47
  15. MacDonald ME, Dolati P, Mitha AP, Wong JH, Frayne R. Flow and pressure measurements in aneurysms and arteriovenous malformations with phase contrast MR imaging. Magn Reson Imaging 2016;34:1322-8.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mri.2016.07.007
  16. Jarrett DY, Ali M, Chaudry G. Imaging of vascular anomalies. Dermatol Clin 2013;31:251-66.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2012.12.004
  17. Wildgruber M, Sadick M, Muller-Wille R, Wohlgemuth WA. Vascular tumors in infants and adolescents. Insights Imaging 2019;10:30. 
  18. Breugem CC, Maas M, Breugem SJ, Schaap GR, van der Horst CM. Vascular malformations of the lower limb with osseous involvement. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2003;85:399-405. https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-200303000-00001
  19. Ryu JY, Chung HY, Choi KY. Potential role of artificial intelligence in craniofacial surgery. Arch Craniofac Surg 2021;22:223-31.  https://doi.org/10.7181/acfs.2021.00507
  20. Cohen MM Jr. Vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, hemangiomas, and vascular malformations. Am J Med Genet 2002;108:265-74.  https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.10260
  21. Zhang L, Lin X, Wang W, Zhuang X, Dong J, Qi Z, et al. Circulating level of vascular endothelial growth factor in differentiating hemangioma from vascular malformation patients. Plast Reconstr Surg 2005;116:200-4.  https://doi.org/10.1097/01.PRS.0000170804.80834.5F
  22. North PE, Waner M, Mizeracki A, Mihm MC Jr. GLUT1: a newly discovered immunohistochemical marker for juvenile hemangiomas. Hum Pathol 2000;31:11-22.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0046-8177(00)80192-6
  23. Lo K, Mihm M, Fay A. Current theories on the pathogenesis of infantile hemangioma. Semin Ophthalmol 2009;24:172-7.  https://doi.org/10.1080/08820530902805438
  24. Haggstrom AN, Lammer EJ, Schneider RA, Marcucio R, Frieden IJ. Patterns of infantile hemangiomas: new clues to hemangioma pathogenesis and embryonic facial development. Pediatrics 2006;117:698-703.  https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-1092
  25. Waner M, North PE, Scherer KA, Frieden IJ, Waner A, Mihm MC Jr. The nonrandom distribution of facial hemangiomas. Arch Dermatol 2003;139:869-75.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.139.7.869
  26. Holmdahl K. Cutaneous hemangiomas in premature and mature infants. Acta Paediatr (Stockh) 1955;44:370-9.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.1955.tb04151.x
  27. Bruckner AL, Frieden IJ. Hemangiomas of infancy. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003;48:477-96.  https://doi.org/10.1067/mjd.2003.200
  28. Legiehn GM, Heran MK. Classification, diagnosis, and interventional radiologic management of vascular malformations. Orthop Clin North Am 2006;37:435-74.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocl.2006.04.005
  29. Leaute-Labreze C, Dumas de la Roque E, Hubiche T, Boralevi F, Thambo JB, Taieb A. Propranolol for severe hemangiomas of infancy. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2649-51.  https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc0708819
  30. Herron MD, Coffin CM, Vanderhooft SL. Tufted angiomas: variability of the clinical morphology. Pediatr Dermatol 2002;19:394-401.  https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1470.2002.00113.x
  31. Jones EW, Orkin M. Tufted angioma (angioblastoma): a benign progressive angioma, not to be confused with Kaposi's sarcoma or low-grade angiosarcoma. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;20(2 Pt 1):214-25.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(89)70025-6
  32. Gong X, Ying H, Zhang Z, Wang L, Li J, Ding A, et al. Ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging features of kaposiform hemangioendothelioma and tufted angioma. J Dermatol 2019;46:835-42.  https://doi.org/10.1111/1346-8138.15025
  33. Ishikawa K, Hatano Y, Ichikawa H, Hashimoto H, Fujiwara S. The spontaneous regression of tufted angioma: a case of regression after two recurrences and a review of 27 cases reported in the literature. Dermatology 2005;210:346-8.  https://doi.org/10.1159/000084764
  34. Vin-Christian K, McCalmont TH, Frieden IJ. Kaposiform hemangioendothelioma: an aggressive, locally invasive vascular tumor that can mimic hemangioma of infancy. Arch Dermatol 1997;133:1573-8.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1997.03890480093014
  35. Mukerji SS, Osborn AJ, Roberts J, Valdez TA. Kaposiform hemangioendothelioma (with Kasabach Merritt syndrome) of the head and neck: case report and review of the literature. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2009;73:1474-6.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.06.019
  36. Nord KM, Kandel J, Lefkowitch JH, Lobritto SJ, Morel KD, North PE, et al. Multiple cutaneous infantile hemangiomas associated with hepatic angiosarcoma: case report and review of the literature. Pediatrics 2006;118:e907-13.  https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2006-0183
  37. Burrows PE, Mulliken JB, Fellows KE, Strand RD. Childhood hemangiomas and vascular malformations: angiographic differentiation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1983;141:483-8.  https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.141.3.483
  38. Lam SM, Williams III EF. Vascular anomalies: review and current therapy. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2002;10:309-15.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00020840-200208000-00013
  39. Van Damme A, Seront E, Dekeuleneer V, Boon LM, Vikkula M. New and emerging targeted therapies for vascular malformations. Am J Clin Dermatol 2020;21:657-68.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s40257-020-00528-w
  40. Nadal M, Giraudeau B, Tavernier E, Jonville-Bera AP, Lorette G, Maruani A. Efficacy and safety of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors in vascular anomalies: a systematic review. Acta Derm Venereol 2016;96:448-52.  https://doi.org/10.2340/00015555-2300
  41. Eifert S, Villavicencio JL, Kao TC, Taute BM, Rich NM. Prevalence of deep venous anomalies in congenital vascular malformations of venous predominance. J Vasc Surg 2000;31:462-71.  https://doi.org/10.1067/mva.2000.101464
  42. Filston HC. Hemangiomas, cystic hygromas, and teratomas of the head and neck. Semin Pediatr Surg 1994;3:147-59. 
  43. Greene AK, Rogers GF, Mulliken JB. Intraosseous "hemangiomas" are malformations and not tumors. Plast Reconstr Surg 2007;119:1949-50.  https://doi.org/10.1097/01.prs.0000259768.59590.5a
  44. Pappas DC Jr, Persky MS, Berenstein A. Evaluation and treatment of head and neck venous vascular malformations. Ear Nose Throat J 1998;77:914-22.  https://doi.org/10.1177/014556139807701110
  45. Stapf C, Mohr JP, Pile-Spellman J, Solomon RA, Sacco RL, Connolly ES Jr. Epidemiology and natural history of arteriovenous malformations. Neurosurg Focus 2001;11:e1. 
  46. Boon LM, Mulliken JB, Enjolras O, Vikkula M. Glomuvenous malformation (glomangioma) and venous malformation: distinct clinicopathologic and genetic entities. Arch Dermatol 2004;140:971-6.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.140.8.971
  47. Glade RS, Richter GT, James CA, Suen JY, Buckmiller LM. Diagnosis and management of pediatric cervicofacial venous malformations: retrospective review from a vascular anomalies center. Laryngoscope 2010;120:229-35.  https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.20715
  48. Casanova D, Boon LM, Vikkula M. Venous malformations: clinical characteristics and differential diagnosis. Ann Chir Plast Esthet 2006;51:373-87.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anplas.2006.07.018
  49. Bourgouin P, Thomas-Chausse F, Gilbert P, Giroux MF, Perigny S, Guertin L, et al. Effectiveness and safety of sclerotherapy for treatment of low-flow vascular malformations of the oropharyngeal region. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2018;29:809-15.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2017.12.028
  50. Cho AL, Kiang SC, Lodenkamp J, Tritch WT, Tomihama RT. Fatal lung toxicity after intralesional bleomycin sclerotherapy of a vascular malformation. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2020;43:648-51.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00270-020-02420-w
  51. Tieu DD, Ghodke BV, Vo NJ, Perkins JA. Single-stage excision of localized head and neck venous malformations using preoperative glue embolization. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2013;148:678-84.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0194599813475586
  52. Lee GS, Perkins JA, Oliaei S, Manning SC. Facial nerve anatomy, dissection and preservation in lymphatic malformation management. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2008;72:759-66.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2008.01.034
  53. Hochman M, Adams DM, Reeves TD. Current knowledge and management of vascular anomalies, II: malformations. Arch Facial Plast Surg 2011;13:425-33.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archfaci.2011.795
  54. Raveh E, de Jong AL, Taylor GP, Forte V. Prognostic factors in the treatment of lymphatic malformations. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1997;123:1061-5.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.1997.01900100035004
  55. Berg EE, Sobol SE, Jacobs I. Laryngeal obstruction by cervical and endolaryngeal lymphatic malformations in children: proposed staging system and review of treatment. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 2013;122:575-81.  https://doi.org/10.1177/000348941312200907
  56. Uller W, Alomari AI, Richter GT. Arteriovenous malformations. Semin Pediatr Surg 2014;23:203-7.  https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2014.07.005
  57. Elluru RG, Azizkhan RG. Cervicofacial vascular anomalies. II. Vascular malformations. Semin Pediatr Surg 2006;15:133-9.  https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2006.02.011
  58. Rosenberg TL, Suen JY, Richter GT. Arteriovenous malformations of the head and neck. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2018;51:185-95.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2017.09.005
  59. Kim DG, Cho HG, Ryu JY, Lee JS, Lee SJ, Lee JM, et al. Clinical assessment and management of auricular arteriovenous malformation: retrospective study. Arch Craniofac Surg 2021;22:141-7.  https://doi.org/10.7181/acfs.2021.00192
  60. Bodensteiner JB, Roach ES. Sturge-Weber syndrome. Sturge-Weber Foundation; 1999. 
  61. Cha SH, Romeo MA, Neutze JA. Visceral manifestations of Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. Radiographics 2005;25:1694-7.  https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.256055042
  62. Yeom S, Comi AM. Updates on Sturge-Weber syndrome. Stroke 2022;53:3769-79.  https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.122.038585
  63. Enjolras O, Riche MC, Merland JJ. Facial port-wine stains and Sturge-Weber syndrome. Pediatrics 1985;76:48-51. 
  64. Gill RE, Tang B, Smegal L, Adamek JH, McAuliffe D, Lakshmanan BM, et al. Quantitative EEG improves prediction of Sturge-Weber syndrome in infants with port-wine birthmark. Clin Neurophysiol 2021;132:2440-6.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2021.06.030
  65. Comi AM. Presentation, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment of the neurological features of Sturge-Weber syndrome. Neurologist 2011;17:179-84.  https://doi.org/10.1097/NRL.0b013e318220c5b6
  66. Shirley MD, Tang H, Gallione CJ, Baugher JD, Frelin LP, Cohen B, et al. Sturge-Weber syndrome and port-wine stains caused by somatic mutation in GNAQ. N Engl J Med 2013;368:1971-9.  https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1213507
  67. Oduber CE, van der Horst CM, Hennekam RC. Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome: diagnostic criteria and hypothesis on etiology. Ann Plast Surg 2008;60:217-23.  https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0b013e318062abc1
  68. Vahidnezhad H, Youssefian L, Uitto J. Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome belongs to the PIK3CA-related overgrowth spectrum (PROS). Exp Dermatol 2016;25:17-9.  https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.12826
  69. Purkait R, Samanta T, Sinhamahapatra T, Chatterjee M. Overlap of Sturge-Weber syndrome and Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. Indian J Dermatol 2011;56:755-7.  https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.91848
  70. Karim T, Singh U, Nanda NS. A rare presentation of Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. Indian Dermatol Online J 2014;5:154-6.  https://doi.org/10.4103/2229-5178.131086
  71. John PR. Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol 2019;22:100634. 
  72. Huang WJ, Creath CJ. Klippel-Trenaunay-Weber syndrome: literature review and case report. Pediatr Dent 1994;16:231-5. 
  73. Blatt J, Finger M, Price V, Crary SE, Pandya A, Adams DM. Cancer risk in Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome. Lymphat Res Biol 2019;17:630-6.  https://doi.org/10.1089/lrb.2018.0049
  74. Gloviczki P, Stanson AW, Stickler GB, Johnson CM, Toomey BJ, Meland NB, et al. Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome: the risks and benefits of vascular interventions. Surgery 1991;110:469-79. 
  75. Redondo P, Bastarrika G, Sierra A, Martinez-Cuesta A, Cabrera J. Efficacy and safety of microfoam sclerotherapy in a patient with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome and a patent foramen ovale. Arch Dermatol 2009;145:1147-51.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archdermatol.2009.210
  76. Lee A, Driscoll D, Gloviczki P, Clay R, Shaughnessy W, Stans A. Evaluation and management of pain in patients with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome: a review. Pediatrics 2005;115:744-9.  https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-0446
  77. Lindenauer SM. The Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome: varicosity, hypertrophy and hemangioma with no arteriovenous fistula. Ann Surg 1965;162:303-14.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-196508000-00023
  78. Nahm WK, Moise S, Eichenfield LF, Paller AS, Nathanson L, Malicki DM, et al. Venous malformations in blue rubber bleb nevus syndrome: variable onset of presentation. J Am Acad Dermatol 2004;50(5 Suppl):S101-6.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(03)02468-X
  79. Wong CH, Tan YM, Chow WC, Tan PH, Wong WK. Blue rubber bleb nevus syndrome: a clinical spectrum with correlation between cutaneous and gastrointestinal manifestations. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003;18:1000-2.  https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1746.2003.03083.x
  80. Kassarjian A, Fishman SJ, Fox VL, Burrows PE. Imaging characteristics of blue rubber bleb nevus syndrome. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2003;181:1041-8.  https://doi.org/10.2214/ajr.181.4.1811041
  81. Soblet J, Kangas J, Natynki M, Mendola A, Helaers R, Uebelhoer M, et al. Blue rubber bleb nevus (BRBN) syndrome is caused by somatic TEK (TIE2) mutations. J Invest Dermatol 2017;137:207-16.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2016.07.034
  82. Weiss D, Teichler A, Hoeger PH. Long-term sirolimus treatment in blue rubber bleb nevus syndrome: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Dermatol 2021;38:464-8.  https://doi.org/10.1111/pde.14506
  83. Biesecker LG, Happle R, Mulliken JB, Weksberg R, Graham JM Jr, Viljoen DL, et al. Proteus syndrome: diagnostic criteria, differential diagnosis, and patient evaluation. Am J Med Genet 1999;84:389-95.  https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19990611)84:5<389::AID-AJMG1>3.0.CO;2-O
  84. Lindhurst MJ, Sapp JC, Teer JK, Johnston JJ, Finn EM, Peters K, et al. A mosaic activating mutation in AKT1 associated with the Proteus syndrome. N Engl J Med 2011;365:611-9.  https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1104017
  85. Zwenneke Flach H, Ginai AZ, Wolter Oosterhuis J. Best cases from the AFIP: Maffucci syndrome: radiologic and pathologic findings. Armed Forces Institutes of Pathology. Radiographics 2001;21:1311-6.  https://doi.org/10.1148/radiographics.21.5.g01se301311
  86. Dubois J, Alison M. Vascular anomalies: what a radiologist needs to know. Pediatr Radiol 2010;40:895-905.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-010-1621-y
  87. Lekwuttikarn R, Chang J, Teng JM. Successful treatment of spindle cell hemangiomas in a patient with Maffucci syndrome and review of literatures. Dermatol Ther 2019;32:e12919. 
  88. Ziyeh S, Spreer J, Rossler J, Strecker R, Hochmuth A, Schumacher M, et al. Parkes Weber or Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome? Non-invasive diagnosis with MR projection angiography. Eur Radiol 2004;14:2025-9.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s00330-004-2274-8
  89. Flores Daboub JA, Grimmer JF, Frigerio A, Wooderchak-Donahue W, Arnold R, Szymanski J, et al. Parkes Weber syndrome associated with two somatic pathogenic variants in RASA1. Cold Spring Harb Mol Case Stud 2020;6:a005256. 
  90. Frieden IJ, Reese V, Cohen D. PHACE syndrome: the association of posterior fossa brain malformations, hemangiomas, arterial anomalies, coarctation of the aorta and cardiac defects, and eye abnormalities. Arch Dermatol 1996;132:307-11.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1996.03890270083012
  91. Kasabach HH, Merritt KK. Capillary hemangioma with extensive purpura: report of a case. Am J Dis Child 1940;59:1063-70.  https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1940.01990160135009
  92. Harbers VE, van der Salm N, Pegge SA, van der Vleuten CJ, Verhoeven BH, Vrancken SL, et al. Effective low-dose sirolimus regimen for kaposiform haemangioendothelioma with Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon in young infants. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2022;88:2769-81.  https://doi.org/10.1111/bcp.15202
  93. Kohout MP, Hansen M, Pribaz JJ, Mulliken JB. Arteriovenous malformations of the head and neck: natural history and management. Plast Reconstr Surg 1998;102:643-54.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-199809010-00006
  94. Tark KC, Chung S. Histologic change of arteriovenous malformations of the face and scalp after free flap transfer. Plast Reconstr Surg 2000;106:87-93.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00006534-200007000-00016
  95. Hong JP, Choi JW, Chang H, Lee TJ. Reconstruction of the face after resection of arteriovenous malformations using anterolateral thigh perforator flap. J Craniofac Surg 2005;16:851-5. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.scs.0000187693.36765.38