Nutrition Research and Practice

The Korean Nutrition Society (한국영양학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Sodium intake trend and current intake level by meal provision place among the citizens of Seoul

  • Ye-Ji Han (Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women's University) ;
  • Eun-Hee Jang (Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women's University) ;
  • Seungmin Lee (Department of Food and Nutrition, Sungshin Women's University)
  • Received : 2022.10.20
  • Accepted : 2022.12.30
  • Published : 2023.06.01
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The diversity of meal provision places has increased in recent years and sodium intake can vary depending on where meals are eaten, particularly in large cities. In this study, an analysis of the recent trends in sodium intake was performed and a comparison of sodium intake level according to meal provision place among citizens of Seoul was performed. SUBJECTS/METHODS: Data from a 24-h recall dietary intake survey from the 2010-2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) were used in order to determine the trends in sodium intake among citizens of Seoul, aged 3-74 years old. (n = 11,811). The trend of daily sodium intake was presented in absolute amount and proportion compared to the chronic disease risk reduction intake (CDRR) for each selected characteristic. A comparison of sodium intake level according to meal provision place by sex and age groups as a total amount per meal (mg), density per meal (mg/1,000 kcal), and proportion of the daily sodium intake was performed using the 2016-2019 KNHANES. RESULTS: Sodium intake levels showed a downward trend from 2010-2019. The highest level of sodium intake was observed for subjects aged 30-49, and the level for males aged 30-49 was 202.8% higher than the CDRR. Results of the analysis of sodium intake per meal according to meal provision place showed that the highest sodium intake was in the order of restaurant meal (RM) > institutional foodservice (IF) > home meal (HM) > convenience food (CF). A higher sodium density (mg/1,000 kcal) was observed for IF compared with RM in most adults. Adults aged over 50 years old consumed more than half of the daily sodium in HM. CONCLUSION: Significant variation in the level of sodium intake was observed according to sex and age groups, therefore, different approaches and nutrition policies based on meal provision place are needed.

Keywords

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by Seoul Metropolitan Government.

References

  1. He FJ, Li J, Macgregor GA. Effect of longer term modest salt reduction on blood pressure: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 2013;346:f1325.
  2. Mozaffarian D, Fahimi S, Singh GM, Micha R, Khatibzadeh S, Engell RE, Lim S, Danaei G, Ezzati M, Powles J; Global Burden of Diseases Nutrition and Chronic Diseases Expert Group. Global sodium consumption and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med 2014;371:624-34. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1304127
  3. Graudal NA, Hubeck-Graudal T, Jurgens G. Effects of low-sodium diet vs. high-sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterol, and triglyceride (Cochrane Review). Am J Hypertens 2012;25:1-15. https://doi.org/10.1038/ajh.2011.210
  4. Cook NR, Appel LJ, Whelton PK. Sodium intake and all-cause mortality over 20 years in the trials of hypertension prevention. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016;68:1609-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.07.745
  5. Park CY, Jo G, Lee J, Singh GM, Lee JT, Shin MJ. Association between dietary sodium intake and disease burden and mortality in Koreans between 1998 and 2016: The Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Nutr Res Pract 2020;14:501-18. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2020.14.5.501
  6. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2019: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VIII-1): Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Cheongju: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2019.
  7. Ministry of Health and Welfare. Health Plan 2020, 2011~2020. Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2011. 
  8. Statistics Korea. Population density by region. Paper presented at: Statistics Korea Government Official Work Conference; 2022; Daejeon.
  9. Seoul Metropolitan Government, Division of Food Safety. A Comprehensive Plan of Reducing Sodium Intake in Seoul 2020. Seoul: Seoul Metropolitan Government, Division of Food Safety; 2013.
  10. Park HK, Lee Y, Kang BW, Kwon KI, Kim JW, Kwon OS, Cobb LK, Campbell NR, Blakeman DE, Kim CI. Progress on sodium reduction in South Korea. BMJ Glob Health 2020;5:e002028.
  11. Lim AH, Hwang JY, Kim K. Evaluation of the sodium intake reduction plan for a local government and evidence-based reestablishment of objectives: case of the Seoul Metropolitan Government. J Nutr Health 2017;50:664.
  12. Shin WY, Cho SH, Kim JH. Workplace foodservice meals are associated with higher nutritional quality among adult Korean workers: a nationwide cross-sectional study. Nutr Res Pract 2022;16:248-59. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2022.16.2.248
  13. Park HR, Jeong GO, Lee SL, Kim JY, Kang SA, Park KY, Ryou HJ. Workers intake too much salt from dishes of eating out and food service cafeterias; direct chemical analysis of sodium content. Nutr Res Pract 2009;3:328-33. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2009.3.4.328
  14. Kim WG, Choi I, Yoon J. Nutritional quality of lunches consumed by Korean workers: Comparison between institutional and commercial lunches. Nutr Res Pract 2016;10:606-15. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2016.10.6.606
  15. Kim S, Kang M. Male Korean workers eating out at dinner. Br Food J 2018;120:1832-43. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-12-2017-0680
  16. Kim D, Ahn BI. Eating out and consumers' health: evidence on obesity and balanced nutrition intakes. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020;17:586.
  17. Park Y, Yoon J, Chung SJ. Comparison of the sodium content of Korean soup-based dishes prepared at home, restaurants, and schools in Seoul. J Nutr Health 2020;53:663.
  18. Han G, Yang E. Nutrient intake in Korean adults determined by considering the type of lunch, categorized as home meals, eating out and institutional meals: data from the 2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Korean Soc Food Cult 2021;36:583-94.
  19. Lee KI, Kim SH, Shin SY, Shim H, Park IH. The Consumer Behavior Survey for Food 2021. Naju: Korea Rural Economic Institute; 2021.
  20. Kwon O, Kim H, Kim J, Hwang JY, Lee J, Yoon MO. The development of the 2020 Dietary Reference Intakes for Korean population: lessons and challenges. J Nutr Health 2021;54:425-34. https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2021.54.5.425
  21. Ministry of Health and Welfare; The Korean Nutrition Society. Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans. Sejong: Ministry of Health and Welfare; 2020.
  22. Choi M. Meal types by cooking method consumed by Korean adults according to meal provision place: using 2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Korean J Food Cookery Sci 2017;33:264-74. https://doi.org/10.9724/kfcs.2017.33.3.264
  23. Lee HS, Duffey KJ, Popkin BM. Sodium and potassium intake patterns and trends in South Korea. J Hum Hypertens 2013;27:298-303. https://doi.org/10.1038/jhh.2012.43
  24. Jeong Y, Kim ES, Lee J, Kim Y. Trends in sodium intake and major contributing food groups and dishes in Korea: the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2017. Nutr Res Pract 2021;15:382-95. https://doi.org/10.4162/nrp.2021.15.3.382
  25. Tsuchihashi T. Dietary salt intake in Japan - past, present, and future. Hypertens Res 2022;45:748-57. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-022-00888-2
  26. Shim JS, Shim SY, Cha HJ, Kim J, Kim HC. Socioeconomic characteristics and trends in the consumption of ultra-processed foods in Korea from 2010 to 2018. Nutrients 2021;13:1120.
  27. Zagorsky JL, Smith PK. The association between socioeconomic status and adult fast-food consumption in the U.S. Econ Hum Biol 2017;27:12-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2017.04.004
  28. Baker P, Machado P, Santos T, Sievert K, Backholer K, Hadjikakou M, Russell C, Huse O, Bell C, Scrinis G, et al. Ultra-processed foods and the nutrition transition: global, regional and national trends, food systems transformations and political economy drivers. Obes Rev 2020;21:e13126.
  29. Hao J, Zhou P, Qiu H. Association between ultra-processed food consumption and frailty in American elder people: evidence from a cross-sectional study. J Nutr Health Aging 2022;26:688-97. . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-022-1824-6
  30. Kim HJ, Oh SY, Choi DW, Park EC. The association between eating-out rate and BMI in Korea. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019;16:3186.
  31. Hur YI, Huh Y, Lee JH, Lee CB, Kim BY, Yu SH, Kim JH, Kim JW, Kim HM, Lee MK, et al. Factors associated with body weight gain among Korean adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Obes Metab Syndr 2022;31:51-60. https://doi.org/10.7570/jomes21087
  32. Han AL. Association between non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and dietary habits, stress, and health-related quality of life in Korean adults. Nutrients 2020;12:1555.
  33. Struijk EA, Hagan KA, Fung TT, Hu FB, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Lopez-Garcia E. Diet quality and risk of frailty among older women in the Nurses' Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2020;111:877-83. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa028
  34. Barragan R, Coltell O, Portoles O, Asensio EM, Sorli JV, Ortega-Azorin C, Gonzalez JI, Saiz C, Fernandez-Carrion R, Ordovas JM, et al. Bitter, sweet, salty, sour and umami taste perception decreases with age: sex-specific analysis, modulation by genetic variants and taste-preference associations in 18 to 80 year-old subjects. Nutrients 2018;10:1539.
  35. Wiriyawattana P, Suwonsichon S, Suwonsichon T. Effects of aging on taste thresholds: a case of Asian people. J Sens Stud 2018;33:e12436.
  36. Jeon S, Kim Y, Min S, Song M, Son S, Lee S. Taste sensitivity of elderly people is associated with quality of life and inadequate dietary intake. Nutrients 2021;13:1693.
  37. Tan SY, Sotirelis E, Bojeh R, Maan I, Medalle M, Chik XS, Keast R, Tucker RM. Is dietary intake associated with salt taste function and perception in adults? A systematic review. Food Qual Prefer 2021;92:104174.
  38. Leyvraz M, Chatelan A, da Costa BR, Taffe P, Paradis G, Bovet P, Bochud M, Chiolero A. Sodium intake and blood pressure in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental and observational studies. Int J Epidemiol 2018;47:1796-810. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyy121