Korean Journal of Radiology

  • 제24권12호
  • /
  • Pages.1200-1220
  • /
  • 2023
  • /
  • 1229-6929(pISSN)
  • /
  • 2005-8330(eISSN)
대한영상의학회 (The Korean Society of Radiology)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Utilities and Limitations of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Dilated Cardiomyopathy

  • Min Jae Cha (Department of Radiology, Chung-Ang University Hospital) ;
  • Yoo Jin Hong (Department of Radiology and Research Institute of Radiological Science, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine) ;
  • Chan Ho Park (Department of Radiology, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital) ;
  • Yoon Jin Cha (Department of Pathology, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine) ;
  • Tae Hoon Kim (Department of Radiology and Research Institute of Radiological Science, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine) ;
  • Cherry Kim (Department of Radiology, Korea University Ansan Hospital) ;
  • Chul Hwan Park (Department of Radiology and Research Institute of Radiological Science, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine)
  • 투고 : 2023.06.05
  • 심사 : 2023.08.15
  • 발행 : 2023.12.01
PDF 다운로드
⟨ 이전 논문 다음 논문 ⟩

초록

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is one of the most common types of non-ischemic cardiomyopathy. DCM is characterized by left ventricle (LV) dilatation and systolic dysfunction without coronary artery disease or abnormal loading conditions. DCM is not a single disease entity and has a complex historical background of revisions and updates to its definition because of its diverse etiology and clinical manifestations. In cases of LV dilatation and dysfunction, conditions with phenotypic overlap should be excluded before establishing a DCM diagnosis. The differential diagnoses of DCM include ischemic cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, burned-out hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, and non-compaction. Cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is helpful for evaluating DCM because it provides precise measurements of cardiac size, function, mass, and tissue characterization. Comprehensive analyses using various sequences, including cine imaging, late gadolinium enhancement imaging, and T1 and T2 mapping, may help establish differential diagnoses, etiological work-up, disease stratification, prognostic determination, and follow-up procedures in patients with DCM phenotypes. This article aimed to review the utilities and limitations of CMR in the diagnosis and assessment of DCM.

키워드

참고문헌

  1. WHO/ISFC Task Force. Report of the WHO/ISFC task force on the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. Br Heart J 1980;44:672-673 
  2. Richardson P, McKenna W, Bristow M, Maisch B, Mautner B, O'Connell J, et al. Report of the 1995 World Health Organization/International Society and Federation of Cardiology Task Force on the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. Circulation 1996;93:841-842 
  3. Maron BJ, Towbin JA, Thiene G, Antzelevitch C, Corrado D, Arnett D, et al. Contemporary definitions and classification of the cardiomyopathies: an American Heart Association scientific statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Heart Failure and Transplantation Committee; Quality of Care and Outcomes Research and Functional Genomics and Translational Biology Interdisciplinary Working Groups; and Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation 2006;113:1807-1816 
  4. Elliott P, Andersson B, Arbustini E, Bilinska Z, Cecchi F, Charron P, et al. Classification of the cardiomyopathies: a position statement from the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on myocardial and pericardial diseases. Eur Heart J 2008;29:270-276 
  5. Pinto YM, Elliott PM, Arbustini E, Adler Y, Anastasakis A, Bohm M, et al. Proposal for a revised definition of dilated cardiomyopathy, hypokinetic non-dilated cardiomyopathy, and its implications for clinical practice: a position statement of the ESC working group on myocardial and pericardial diseases. Eur Heart J 2016;37:1850-1858 
  6. Arbustini E, Narula N, Dec GW, Reddy KS, Greenberg B, Kushwaha S, et al. The MOGE(S) classification for a phenotype-genotype nomenclature of cardiomyopathy: endorsed by the World Heart Federation. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;62:2046-2072 
  7. Arbelo E, Protonotarios A, Gimeno JR, Arbustini E, Barriales-Villa R, Basso C, et al. 2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of cardiomyopathies. Eur Heart J 2023;44:3503-3626 
  8. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, Gardner RS, Baumbach A, Bohm M, et al. 2021 ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: developed by the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). With the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail 2022;24:4-131 
  9. McMurray JJ, Adamopoulos S, Anker SD, Auricchio A, Bohm M, Dickstein K, et al. ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2012: the task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2012 of the European Society of Cardiology. Developed in collaboration with the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur J Heart Fail 2012;14:803-869 
  10. Bellenger NG, Burgess MI, Ray SG, Lahiri A, Coats AJ, Cleland JG, et al. Comparison of left ventricular ejection fraction and volumes in heart failure by echocardiography, radionuclide ventriculography and cardiovascular magnetic resonance; are they interchangeable? Eur Heart J 2000;21:1387-1396 
  11. Champ-Rigot L, Gay P, Seita F, Benouda L, Morello R, Pellissier A, et al. Clinical outcomes after primary prevention defibrillator implantation are better predicted when the left ventricular ejection fraction is assessed by cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2020;22:48 
  12. Rijnierse MT, van der Lingen AL, Weiland MT, de Haan S, Nijveldt R, Beek AM, et al. Clinical impact of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging versus echocardiography-guided patient selection for primary prevention implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy. Am J Cardiol 2015;116:406-412 
  13. de Haan S, de Boer K, Commandeur J, Beek AM, van Rossum AC, Allaart CP. Assessment of left ventricular ejection fraction in patients eligible for ICD therapy: discrepancy between cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and 2D echocardiography. Neth Heart J 2014;22:449-455 
  14. Xu J, Yang W, Zhao S, Lu M. State-of-the-art myocardial strain by CMR feature tracking: clinical applications and future perspectives. Eur Radiol 2022;32:5424-5435 
  15. Stone JR, Kanneganti R, Abbasi M, Akhtari M. Monitoring for chemotherapy-related cardiotoxicity in the form of left ventricular systolic dysfunction: a review of current recommendations. JCO Oncol Pract 2021;17:228-236 
  16. Erley J, Genovese D, Tapaskar N, Alvi N, Rashedi N, Besser SA, et al. Echocardiography and cardiovascular magnetic resonance based evaluation of myocardial strain and relationship with late gadolinium enhancement. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2019;21:46 
  17. Azuma M, Kato S, Kodama S, Hayakawa K, Kagimoto M, Iguchi K, et al. Relationship between the cardiac magnetic resonance derived extracellular volume fraction and feature tracking myocardial strain in patients with non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. Magn Reson Imaging 2020;74:14-20 
  18. Kammerlander AA, Dona C, Nitsche C, Koschutnik M, Schonbauer R, Duca F, et al. Feature tracking of global longitudinal strain by using cardiovascular MRI improves risk stratification in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Radiology 2020;296:290-298 
  19. Buss SJ, Breuninger K, Lehrke S, Voss A, Galuschky C, Lossnitzer D, et al. Assessment of myocardial deformation with cardiac magnetic resonance strain imaging improves risk stratification in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 2015;16:307-315 
  20. Im DJ, Hong SJ, Park EA, Kim EY, Jo Y, Kim J, et al. Guidelines for cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging from the Korean Society of Cardiovascular Imaging-Part 3: perfusion, delayed enhancement, and T1- and T2 mapping. Korean J Radiol 2019;20:1562-1582 
  21. Halliday BP, Gulati A, Ali A, Guha K, Newsome S, Arzanauskaite M, et al. Association between midwall late gadolinium enhancement and sudden cardiac death in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and mild and moderate left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Circulation 2017;135:2106-2115 
  22. Halliday BP, Baksi AJ, Gulati A, Ali A, Newsome S, Izgi C, et al. Outcome in dilated cardiomyopathy related to the extent, location, and pattern of late gadolinium enhancement. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2019;12(8 Pt 2):1645-1655 
  23. Kim PK, Hong YJ, Im DJ, Suh YJ, Park CH, Kim JY, et al. Myocardial T1 and T2 mapping: techniques and clinical applications. Korean J Radiol 2017;18:113-131 
  24. Taylor AJ, Salerno M, Dharmakumar R, Jerosch-Herold M. T1 mapping: basic techniques and clinical applications. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2016;9:67-81 
  25. Kehr E, Sono M, Chugh SS, Jerosch-Herold M. Gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging for detection and quantification of fibrosis in human myocardium in vitro. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2008;24:61-68 
  26. Youn JC, Hong YJ, Lee HJ, Han K, Shim CY, Hong GR, et al. Contrast-enhanced T1 mapping-based extracellular volume fraction independently predicts clinical outcome in patients with non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy: a prospective cohort study. Eur Radiol 2017;27:3924-3933 
  27. Vita T, Grani C, Abbasi SA, Neilan TG, Rowin E, Kaneko K, et al. Comparing CMR mapping methods and myocardial patterns toward heart failure outcomes in nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2019;12(8 Pt 2):1659-1669 
  28. Cha MJ, Kim C, Park CH, Hong YJ, Shin JM, Kim TH, et al. Differential diagnosis of thick myocardium according to histologic features revealed by multiparametric cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Korean J Radiol 2022;23:581-597 
  29. Codd MB, Sugrue DD, Gersh BJ, Melton LJ 3rd. Epidemiology of idiopathic dilated and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. A population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1975-1984. Circulation 1989;80:564-572 
  30. Hershberger RE, Hedges DJ, Morales A. Dilated cardiomyopathy: the complexity of a diverse genetic architecture. Nat Rev Cardiol 2013;10:531-547 
  31. Schultheiss HP, Fairweather D, Caforio ALP, Escher F, Hershberger RE, Lipshultz SE, et al. Dilated cardiomyopathy. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2019;5:32 
  32. Michels VV, Moll PP, Miller FA, Tajik AJ, Chu JS, Driscoll DJ, et al. The frequency of familial dilated cardiomyopathy in a series of patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1992;326:77-82 
  33. Grunig E, Tasman JA, Kucherer H, Franz W, Kubler W, Katus HA. Frequency and phenotypes of familial dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;31:186-194 
  34. Mestroni L, Maisch B, McKenna WJ, Schwartz K, Charron P, Rocco C, et al. Guidelines for the study of familial dilated cardiomyopathies. Collaborative research group of the European human and capital mobility project on familial dilated cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J 1999;20:93-102 
  35. Ganesh SK, Arnett DK, Assimes TL, Basson CT, Chakravarti A, Ellinor PT, et al. Genetics and genomics for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease: update: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2013;128:2813-2851 
  36. McNally EM, Mestroni L. Dilated cardiomyopathy: genetic determinants and mechanisms. Circ Res 2017;121:731-748 
  37. Herman DS, Lam L, Taylor MR, Wang L, Teekakirikul P, Christodoulou D, et al. Truncations of titin causing dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 2012;366:619-628 
  38. Bozkurt B, Colvin M, Cook J, Cooper LT, Deswal A, Fonarow GC, et al. Current diagnostic and treatment strategies for specific dilated cardiomyopathies: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2016;134:e579-e646 
  39. Holmstrom M, Kivisto S, Helio T, Jurkko R, Kaartinen M, Antila M, et al. Late gadolinium enhanced cardiovascular magnetic resonance of lamin A/C gene mutation related dilated cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2011;13:30 
  40. Fontana M, Barison A, Botto N, Panchetti L, Ricci G, Milanesi M, et al. CMR-verified interstitial myocardial fibrosis as a marker of subclinical cardiac involvement in LMNA mutation carriers. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2013;6:124-126 
  41. Maisch B. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: the result of dosage and individual predisposition. Herz 2016;41:484-493 
  42. Mirijello A, Tarli C, Vassallo GA, Sestito L, Antonelli M, d'Angelo C, et al. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: what is known and what is not known. Eur J Intern Med 2017;43:1-5 
  43. McKenna CJ, Codd MB, McCann HA, Sugrue DD. Alcohol consumption and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: a case control study. Am Heart J 1998;135(5 Pt 1):833-837 
  44. Tayal U, Gregson J, Buchan R, Whiffin N, Halliday BP, Lota A, et al. Moderate excess alcohol consumption and adverse cardiac remodelling in dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart 2022;108:619-625 
  45. George A, Figueredo VM. Alcoholic cardiomyopathy: a review. J Card Fail 2011;17:844-849 
  46. Beckemeier ME, Bora PS. Fatty acid ethyl esters: potentially toxic products of myocardial ethanol metabolism. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1998;30:2487-2494 
  47. Artico J, Merlo M, Asher C, Cannata A, Masci PG, De Lazzari M, et al. The alcohol-induced cardiomyopathy: a cardiovascular magnetic resonance characterization. Int J Cardiol 2021;331:131-137 
  48. Lyon AR, Lopez-Fernandez T, Couch LS, Asteggiano R, Aznar MC, Bergler-Klein J, et al. 2022 ESC guidelines on cardio-oncology developed in collaboration with the european hematology association (EHA), the european society for therapeutic radiology and oncology (ESTRO) and the international cardio-oncology society (IC-OS). Eur Heart J 2022;43:4229-4361 
  49. Celutkiene J, Pudil R, Lopez-Fernandez T, Grapsa J, Nihoyannopoulos P, Bergler-Klein J, et al. Role of cardiovascular imaging in cancer patients receiving cardiotoxic therapies: a position statement on behalf of the heart failure association (HFA), the european association of cardiovascular imaging (EACVI) and the cardio-oncology council of the european society of cardiology (ESC). Eur J Heart Fail 2020;22:1504-1524 
  50. Thavendiranathan P, Grant AD, Negishi T, Plana JC, Popovic' ZB, Marwick TH. Reproducibility of echocardiographic techniques for sequential assessment of left ventricular ejection fraction and volumes: application to patients undergoing cancer chemotherapy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;61:77-84 
  51. Nguyen KL, Hu P, Ennis DB, Shao J, Pham KA, Chen JJ. Cardiac MRI: a translational imaging tool for characterizing anthracycline-induced myocardial remodeling. Curr Oncol Rep 2016;18:48 
  52. Thavendiranathan P, Poulin F, Lim KD, Plana JC, Woo A, Marwick TH. Use of myocardial strain imaging by echocardiography for the early detection of cardiotoxicity in patients during and after cancer chemotherapy: a systematic review. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63(25 Pt A):2751-2768 
  53. Jordan JH, Sukpraphrute B, Melendez GC, Jolly MP, D'Agostino RB Jr, Hundley WG. Early myocardial strain changes during potentially cardiotoxic chemotherapy may occur as a result of reductions in left ventricular end-diastolic volume: the need to interpret left ventricular strain with volumes. Circulation 2017;135:2575-2577 
  54. Cooper LT Jr, Keren A, Sliwa K, Matsumori A, Mensah GA. The global burden of myocarditis: part 1: a systematic literature review for the global burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors 2010 study. Glob Heart 2014;9:121-129 
  55. Caforio AL, Pankuweit S, Arbustini E, Basso C, Gimeno-Blanes J, Felix SB, et al. Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on myocardial and pericardial diseases. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2636-2648 
  56. D'Ambrosio A, Patti G, Manzoli A, Sinagra G, Di Lenarda A, Silvestri F, et al. The fate of acute myocarditis between spontaneous improvement and evolution to dilated cardiomyopathy: a review. Heart 2001;85:499-504 
  57. Monda E, Palmiero G, Rubino M, Verrillo F, Amodio F, Di Fraia F, et al. Molecular basis of inflammation in the pathogenesis of cardiomyopathies. Int J Mol Sci 2020;21:6462 
  58. Tschope C, Ammirati E, Bozkurt B, Caforio ALP, Cooper LT, Felix SB, et al. Myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy: current evidence and future directions. Nat Rev Cardiol 2021;18:169-193 
  59. Lee J, Choo KS, Jeong YJ, Lee G, Hwang M, Abraham MR, et al. Left atrial strain derived from cardiac magnetic resonance imaging can predict outcomes of patients with acute myocarditis. Korean J Radiol 2023;24:512-521 
  60. Friedrich MG, Sechtem U, Schulz-Menger J, Holmvang G, Alakija P, Cooper LT, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in myocarditis: a JACC white paper. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;53:1475-1487 
  61. Ferreira VM, Schulz-Menger J, Holmvang G, Kramer CM, Carbone I, Sechtem U, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in nonischemic myocardial inflammation: expert recommendations. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018;72:3158-3176 
  62. Japp AG, Gulati A, Cook SA, Cowie MR, Prasad SK. The diagnosis and evaluation of dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2016;67:2996-3010 
  63. Marchand L, Segrestin B, Lapoirie M, Favrel V, Dementhon J, Jouanneau E, et al. Dilated cardiomyopathy revealing Cushing disease: a case report and literature review. Medicine (Baltimore) 2015;94:e2011 
  64. Aydogan BI, Gerede DM, Canpolat AG, Erdogan MF. Cushing's disease presented by reversible dilated cardiomyopathy. Case Rep Cardiol 2015;2015:980897 
  65. Frustaci A, Letizia C, Verardo R, Grande C, Petramala L, Russo MA, et al. Cushing syndrome cardiomyopathy: clinicopathologic impact of cortisol normalization. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2016;9:e004569 
  66. Rastogi P, Dua A, Attri S, Sharma H. Hypothyroidism-induced reversible dilated cardiomyopathy. J Postgrad Med 2018;64:177-179 
  67. Udovcic M, Pena RH, Patham B, Tabatabai L, Kansara A. Hypothyroidism and the heart. Methodist Debakey Cardiovasc J 2017;13:55-59 
  68. Dimmock DP, Lawlor MW. Presentation and diagnostic evaluation of mitochondrial disease. Pediatr Clin North Am 2017;64:161-171 
  69. Florian A, Ludwig A, Stubbe-Drager B, Boentert M, Young P, Waltenberger J, et al. Characteristic cardiac phenotypes are detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients with different clinical phenotypes and genotypes of mitochondrial myopathy. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2015;17:40 
  70. Yang J, Chen S, Duan F, Wang X, Zhang X, Lian B, et al. Mitochondrial cardiomyopathy: molecular epidemiology, diagnosis, models, and therapeutic management. Cells 2022;11:3511 
  71. Meyers DE, Basha HI, Koenig MK. Mitochondrial cardiomyopathy: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. Tex Heart Inst J 2013;40:385-394 
  72. Partington SL, Givertz MM, Gupta S, Kwong RY. Cardiac magnetic resonance aids in the diagnosis of mitochondrial cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2011;123:e227-e229 
  73. Templin C, Pertschy S, Schaefer A. Cardiac hemochromatosis. Int J Cardiol 2007;116:e109-e110 
  74. Mahon NG, Coonar AS, Jeffery S, Coccolo F, Akiyu J, Zal B, et al. Haemochromatosis gene mutations in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Heart 2000;84:541-547 
  75. He T, Kirk P, Firmin DN, Lam WM, Chu WC, Au WY, et al. Multi-center transferability of a breath-hold T2 technique for myocardial iron assessment. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2008;10:11 
  76. Kirk P, Roughton M, Porter JB, Walker JM, Tanner MA, Patel J, et al. Cardiac T2* magnetic resonance for prediction of cardiac complications in thalassemia major. Circulation 2009;120:1961-1968 
  77. Carpenter JP, Grasso AE, Porter JB, Shah F, Dooley J, Pennell DJ. On myocardial siderosis and left ventricular dysfunction in hemochromatosis. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2013;15:24 
  78. Jeong HC, Kim KH, Cho JY, Song JE, Yoon HJ, Seon HJ, et al. Cardiac involvement of churg-strauss syndrome as a reversible cause of dilated cardiomyopathy. J Cardiovasc Ultrasound 2015;23:40-43 
  79. Mavrogeni S, Manoussakis MN, Karagiorga TC, Douskou M, Panagiotakos D, Bournia V, et al. Detection of coronary artery lesions and myocardial necrosis by magnetic resonance in systemic necrotizing vasculitides. Arthritis Rheum 2009;61:1121-1129 
  80. Jastrze˛bska M, Czok ME, Guzik P. Autoimmune diseases, their pharmacological treatment and the cardiovascular system. Cardiol J 2013;20:569-576 
  81. Kawai C, Matsumori A. Dilated cardiomyopathy update: infectious-immune theory revisited. Heart Fail Rev 2013;18:703-714 
  82. Mavrogeni S, Koutsogeorgopoulou L, Dimitroulas T, Markousis-Mavrogenis G, Kolovou G. Complementary role of cardiovascular imaging and laboratory indices in early detection of cardiovascular disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2017;26:227-236 
  83. Ferlini A, Neri M, Gualandi F. The medical genetics of dystrophinopathies: molecular genetic diagnosis and its impact on clinical practice. Neuromuscul Disord 2013;23:4-14 
  84. Pasternak C, Wong S, Elson EL. Mechanical function of dystrophin in muscle cells. J Cell Biol 1995;128:355-361 
  85. Ishikawa Y, Bach JR, Minami R. Cardioprotection for Duchenne's muscular dystrophy. Am Heart J 1999;137:895-902 
  86. Finsterer J, Stollberger C, Avanzini M, Bastovansky A, Wexberg P. Late gadolinium enhancement as subclinical myocardial involvement in a manifesting Duchenne carrier. Int J Cardiol 2011;146:231-232 
  87. Hor KN, Taylor MD, Al-Khalidi HR, Cripe LH, Raman SV, Jefferies JL, et al. Prevalence and distribution of late gadolinium enhancement in a large population of patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: effect of age and left ventricular systolic function. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2013;15:107 
  88. Giglio V, Puddu PE, Camastra G, Sbarbati S, Della Sala SW, Ferlini A, et al. Patterns of late gadolinium enhancement in Duchenne muscular dystrophy carriers. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2014;16:45 
  89. Olivieri LJ, Kellman P, McCarter RJ, Cross RR, Hansen MS, Spurney CF. Native T1 values identify myocardial changes and stratify disease severity in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2016;18:72 
  90. Verhaert D, Richards K, Rafael-Fortney JA, Raman SV. Cardiac involvement in patients with muscular dystrophies: magnetic resonance imaging phenotype and genotypic considerations. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 2011;4:67-76 
  91. Hor KN, Wansapura J, Markham LW, Mazur W, Cripe LH, Fleck R, et al. Circumferential strain analysis identifies strata of cardiomyopathy in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: a cardiac magnetic resonance tagging study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;53:1204-1210 
  92. Kim DY, Kim SH, Ryu KH. Tachycardia induced cardiomyopathy. Korean Circ J 2019;49:808-817 
  93. Gopinathannair R, Etheridge SP, Marchlinski FE, Spinale FG, Lakkireddy D, Olshansky B. Arrhythmia-induced cardiomyopathies: mechanisms, recognition, and management. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015;66:1714-1728 
  94. Vera A, Cecconi A, Martinez-Vives P, Olivera MJ, Hernandez S, Lopez-Melgar B, et al. Electrocardiogram and CMR to differentiate tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy from dilated cardiomyopathy in patients admitted for heart failure. Heart Vessels 2022;37:1850-1858 
  95. Hasdemir C, Yuksel A, Camli D, Kartal Y, Simsek E, Musayev O, et al. Late gadolinium enhancement CMR in patients with tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy caused by idiopathic ventricular arrhythmias. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2012;35:465-470 
  96. Sliwa K, Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Petrie MC, Mebazaa A, Pieske B, Buchmann E, et al. Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of peripartum cardiomyopathy: a position statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on peripartum cardiomyopathy. Eur J Heart Fail 2010;12:767-778 
  97. Ordovas KG, Baldassarre LA, Bucciarelli-Ducci C, Carr J, Fernandes JL, Ferreira VM, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in women with cardiovascular disease: position statement from the society for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (SCMR). J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2021;23:52 
  98. Davis MB, Arany Z, McNamara DM, Goland S, Elkayam U. Peripartum cardiomyopathy: JACC state-of-the-art review. J Am Coll Cardiol 2020;75:207-221 
  99. Lee S, Cho GJ, Park GU, Kim LY, Lee TS, Kim DY, et al. Incidence, risk factors, and clinical characteristics of peripartum cardiomyopathy in South Korea. Circ Heart Fail 2018;11:e004134 
  100. Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Kaminski K, Podewski E, Bonda T, Schaefer A, Sliwa K, et al. A cathepsin D-cleaved 16 kDa form of prolactin mediates postpartum cardiomyopathy. Cell 2007;128:589-600 
  101. Spracklen TF, Chakafana G, Schwartz PJ, Kotta MC, Shaboodien G, Ntusi NAB, et al. Genetics of peripartum cardiomyopathy: current knowledge, future directions and clinical implications. Genes (Basel) 2021;12:103 
  102. Mouquet F, Lions C, de Groote P, Bouabdallaoui N, Willoteaux S, Dagorn J, et al. Characterisation of peripartum cardiomyopathy by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Eur Radiol 2008;18:2765-2769 
  103. Haghikia A, Rontgen P, Vogel-Claussen J, Schwab J, Westenfeld R, Ehlermann P, et al. Prognostic implication of right ventricular involvement in peripartum cardiomyopathy: a cardiovascular magnetic resonance study. ESC Heart Fail 2015;2:139-149 
  104. Marmursztejn J, Vignaux O, Goffinet F, Cabanes L, Duboc D. Delayed-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging features in peripartum cardiomyopathy. Int J Cardiol 2009;137:e63-e64 
  105. Liang YD, Xu YW, Li WH, Wan K, Sun JY, Lin JY, et al. Left ventricular function recovery in peripartum cardiomyopathy: a cardiovascular magnetic resonance study by myocardial T1 and T2 mapping. J Cardiovasc Magn Reson 2020;22:2 
  106. Kramer CM. Role of cardiac MR imaging in cardiomyopathies. J Nucl Med 2015;56(Suppl 4):39S-45S 
  107. Lee JW, Hur JH, Yang DH, Lee BY, Im DJ, Hong SJ, et al. Guidelines for cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging from the Korean Society of Cardiovascular Imaging-part 2: interpretation of cine, flow, and angiography data. Korean J Radiol 2019;20:1477-1490 
  108. Olivotto I, Cecchi F, Poggesi C, Yacoub MH. Patterns of disease progression in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: an individualized approach to clinical staging. Circ Heart Fail 2012;5:535-546 
  109. Yacoub MH, Olivotto I, Cecchi F. 'End-stage' hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: from mystery to model. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2007;4:232-233 
  110. Harris KM, Spirito P, Maron MS, Zenovich AG, Formisano F, Lesser JR, et al. Prevalence, clinical profile, and significance of left ventricular remodeling in the end-stage phase of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2006;114:216-225 
  111. Chun KH, Oh J, Hong YJ, Yu HT, Lee CJ, Kim TH, et al. Prognostic cardiac magnetic resonance markers of left ventricular involvement in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy for predicting heart failure outcomes. J Am Heart Assoc 2022;11:e023167 
  112. Corrado D, Basso C. Arrhythmogenic left ventricular cardiomyopathy. Heart 2022;108:733-743 
  113. Graziano F, Zorzi A, Cipriani A, De Lazzari M, Bauce B, Rigato I, et al. The 2020 "Padua criteria" for diagnosis and phenotype characterization of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy in clinical practice. J Clin Med 2022;11:279 
  114. Cipriani A, Bauce B, De Lazzari M, Rigato I, Bariani R, Meneghin S, et al. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: characterization of left ventricular phenotype and differential diagnosis with dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Heart Assoc 2020;9:e014628 
  115. Gerecke BJ, Engberding R. Noncompaction cardiomyopathy-history and current knowledge for clinical practice. J Clin Med 2021;10:2457 
  116. Gregor Z, Kiss AR, Grebur K, Szabo LE, Merkely B, Vago H, et al. MR -specific characteristics of left ventricular noncompaction and dilated cardiomyopathy. Int J Cardiol 2022;359:69-75 
  117. Huang W, Sun R, Liu W, Xu R, Zhou Z, Bai W, et al. Prognostic value of late gadolinium enhancement in left ventricular noncompaction: a multicenter study. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022;12:2457 
  118. Jo Y, Kim J, Park CH, Lee JW, Hur JH, Yang DH, et al. Guideline for cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging from the Korean Society of Cardiovascular Imaging-part 1: standardized protocol. Korean J Radiol 2019;20:1313-1333