Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (NRF-2020R1I1A3068980).
References
- Chen H, Ge RS, Zirkin BR (2009) Leydig cells: From stem cells to aging. Mol Cell Endocrinol 306:9-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2009.01.023
- Chen H, Hardy MP (1994) Huhtaniemi I, Zirkin BR. Age-related decreased Leydig cell testosterone production in the brown Norway rat. J Androl 15:551-557. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1939-4640.1994.tb00498.x
- Choi AM, Ryter SW, Levine B (2013) Autophagy in human health and disease. N Engl J Med 368:651-662. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1205406
- Ewing LL, Zirkin B (1983) Leydig cell structure and steroidogenic function. Recent Prog Horm Res 39:599-635.
- Gao F, Li G, Liu C, Gao H, Wang H, Liu W, Chen M, Shang Y, Wang L, Shi J, Xia W, Jiao J, Gao F, Li J, Chen L, Li W (2018) Autophagy regulates testosterone synthesis by facilitating cholesterol uptake in Leydig cells. J Cell Biol 217:2103-2119. https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201710078
- Glick D, Barth S, Macleod KF (2010) Autophagy: Cellular and molecular mechanisms. J Pathol 221:3-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/path.2697
- Klinefelter GR, Hall PF, Ewing LL (1987) Effect of luteinizing hormone deprivation in situ on steroidogenesis of rat Leydig cells purified by a multistep procedure. Biol Reprod 36:769-783. https://doi.org/10.1095/biolreprod36.3.769
- Klionsky DJ, Abeliovich H, Agostinis P, Agrawal DK, Aliev G, Askew DS, et al. (2008) Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy in higher eukaryotes. Autophagy 4:151-175. https://doi.org/10.4161/auto.5338
- Klionsky DJ, Emr SD (2000) Autophagy as a regulated pathway of cellular degradation. Science 290:1717-1721. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.290.5497.1717
- Lamark T, Johansen T (2021) Mechanisms of Selective Autophagy. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 37:143-169. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-cellbio-120219-035530
- Levine B, Kroemer G (2008) Autophagy in the pathogenesis of disease. Cell 132:27-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.12.018
- Levine B, Kroemer G (2019) Biological functions of autophagy genes: A disease perspective. Cell 176:11-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2018.09.048
- Li WR, Chen L, Chang ZJ, Xin H, Liu T, Zhang YQ, Li GY, Zhou F, Gong YQ, Gao ZZ, Xin ZC (2011) Autophagic deficiency is related to steroidogenic decline in aged rat Leydig cells. Asian J Androl 13:881-888. https://doi.org/10.1038/aja.2011.85
- Miller WL (1995) Mitochondrial specificity of the early steps in steroidogenesis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 55:607-616. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-0760(95)00212-X
- Miller WL (2008) Steroidogenic enzymes. Endocr Dev 13:1-18. https://doi.org/10.1159/000134751
- Miller WL (2011) Role of mitochondria in steroidogenesis. Endocr Dev 20:1-19. https://doi.org/10.1159/000321204
- Miller WL, Bose HS (2011) Early steps in steroidogenesis: Intracellular cholesterol trafficking. J Lipid Res 52:2111-2135. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R016675
- Mizushima N, Komatsu M (2011) Autophagy: Renovation of cells and tissues. Cell 147:728-741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2011.10.026
- Noda T, Ohsumi Y (1998) Tor, a phosphatidylinositol kinase homologue, controls autophagy in yeast. J Biol Chem 273:3963-3966. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.273.7.3963
- Roberts KP, Zirkin BR (1991) Androgen regulation of spermatogenesis in the rat. Ann N Y Acad Sci 637:90-106. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb27303.x
- Schnebert S, Goguet M, Velez EJ, Depince A, Beaumatin F, Herpin A, Seiliez I (2022) Diving into the evolutionary history of HSC70-linked selective autophagy pathways: Endosomal microautophagy and chaperone-mediated autophagy. Cells 11:1945.
- Seglen PO, Gordon PB (1982) 3-Methyladenine: Specific inhibitor of autophagic/lysosomal protein degradation in isolated rat hepatocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:1889-1892. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.79.6.1889
- Stocco DM, Clark BJ (1996) Regulation of the acute production of steroids in steroidogenic cells. Endocr Rev 17:221-244.
- Tang XM, Clermont Y, Hermo L (1988) Origin and fate of autophagosomes in Leydig cells of normal adult rats. J Androl 9:284-293. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1939-4640.1988.tb01053.x
- Tsujimoto Y, Shimizu S (2005) Another way to die: Autophagic programmed cell death. Cell Death Differ 12 (Suppl 2):1528-1534. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.cdd.4401777
- Turner TT, Jones CE, Howards SS, Ewing LL, Zegeye B, Gunsalus GL (1984) On the androgen microenvironment of maturing spermatozoa. Endocrinology 115:1925-1932. https://doi.org/10.1210/endo-115-5-1925
- Vargas JNS, Hamasaki M, Kawabata T, Youle RJ, Yoshimori T (2023) The mechanisms and roles of selective autophagy in mammals. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 24:167-185. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-022-00542-2
- Yi J, Tang XM (1995) Functional implication of autophagy in steroid-secreting cells of the rat. Anat Rec 242:137-146. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.1092420202
- Zirkin BR, Papadopoulos V (2018) Leydig cells: Formation, function, and regulation. Biol Reprod 99:101-111. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioy059