Journal of Chest Surgery

The Korean Society for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery (대한심장혈관흉부외과학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Medical Complications of Lung Transplantation

  • Park, Moo Suk (Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine)
  • Received : 2022.07.15
  • Accepted : 2022.07.21
  • Published : 2022.08.05
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Lung transplantation (LT) is now considered as an effective treatment option for end-stage lung diseases that improves the short and long-term survival rates and quality of life. As increasingly many LT procedures are being performed, the medical complications of LT are also increasing in frequency and emerging as a very important issue for transplant clinicians. Although chronic lung allograft dysfunction and infection are major causes of death after LT, many medical complications, several of which result from immunosuppressive treatment, contribute to increased mortality and morbidity. This article reviews the most frequent and important medical complications of LT, accompanied by a review of the literature and studies from South Korea, including lung allograft rejection, infection, and non-allograft organ systemic complications.

Keywords

Acknowledgement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

References

  1. Chambers DC, Cherikh WS, Goldfarb SB, et al. The International Thoracic Organ Transplant Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirty-fifth adult lung and heartlung transplant report-2018; focus theme: multiorgan transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2018;37:1169-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2018.07.020
  2. Chambers DC, Yusen RD, Cherikh WS, et al. The Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirty-fourth adult lung and heart-lung transplantation report-2017; focus theme: allograft ischemic time. J Heart Lung Transplant 2017;36:1047-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2017.07.016
  3. Lyu DM, Zamora MR. Medical complications of lung transplantation. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2009;6:101-7. https://doi.org/10.1513/pats.200808-077GO
  4. Thaniyavarn T, Grewal HS, Goldberg HJ, Arcasoy SM. Nonallograft complications of lung transplantation. Thorac Surg Clin 2022;32:243-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thorsurg.2022.01.004
  5. Arcasoy SM, Wilt J. Medical complications after lung transplantation. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2006;27:508-20. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-954611
  6. Kotloff RM, Ahya VN. Medical complications of lung transplantation. Eur Respir J 2004;23:334-42. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.03.00043403
  7. Lease ED, Budev MM. Infectious complications in lung transplant recipients. Thorac Surg Clin 2022;32:211-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thorsurg.2021.12.002
  8. Chambers DC, Cherikh WS, Harhay MO, et al. The International Thoracic Organ Transplant Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirty-sixth adult lung and heartlung transplantation report-2019; focus theme: donor and recipient size match. J Heart Lung Transplant 2019;38:1042-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2019.08.001
  9. McCort M, MacKenzie E, Pursell K, Pitrak D. Bacterial infections in lung transplantation. J Thorac Dis 2021;13:6654-72. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd-2021-12
  10. Samanta P, Clancy CJ, Nguyen MH. Fungal infections in lung transplantation. J Thorac Dis 2021;13:6695-707. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd-2021-26
  11. Munting A, Manuel O. Viral infections in lung transplantation. J Thorac Dis 2021;13:6673-94. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd-2021-24
  12. Fishman JA, Gans H; AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Pneumocystis jiroveci in solid organ transplantation: guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant 2019;33:e13587.
  13. Pennington KM, Yost KJ, Escalante P, Razonable RR, Kennedy CC. Antifungal prophylaxis in lung transplant: a survey of United States' transplant centers. Clin Transplant 2019;33:e13630. https://doi.org/10.1111/ctr.13630
  14. Razonable RR, Humar A. Cytomegalovirus in solid organ transplant recipients: guidelines of the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant 2019;33:e13512.
  15. Kotton CN, Kumar D, Caliendo AM, et al. The third international consensus guidelines on the management of cytomegalovirus in solid-organ transplantation. Transplantation 2018;102:900-31. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000002191
  16. Lee DH, Zuckerman RA; AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Herpes simplex virus infections in solid organ transplantation: guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant 2019;33:e13526.
  17. Pergam SA, Limaye AP; AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Varicella zoster virus in solid organ transplantation: guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant 2019;33:e13622.
  18. Coiffard B, Prud'Homme E, Hraiech S, et al. Worldwide clinical practices in perioperative antibiotic therapy for lung transplantation. BMC Pulm Med 2020;20:109. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12890-020-1151-9
  19. Bunsow E, Los-Arcos I, Martin-Gomez MT, et al. Donor-derived bacterial infections in lung transplant recipients in the era of multidrug resistance. J Infect 2020;80:190-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2019.12.006
  20. Kaul DR, Vece G, Blumberg E, et al. Ten years of donor-derived disease: a report of the Disease Transmission Advisory Committee. Am J Transplant 2021;21:689-702. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.16178
  21. Wolfe CR, Ison MG; AST Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Donor-derived infections: guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transplant 2019;33:e13547.
  22. Avery RK. Infections after lung transplantation. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2006;27:544-51. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2006-954612
  23. Kim SY, Jeong SJ, Lee JG, et al. Critical care after lung transplantation. Acute Crit Care 2018;33:206-15. https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2018.00360
  24. Mohanka MR, Mehta AC, Budev MM, Machuzak MS, Gildea TR. Impact of bedside bronchoscopy in critically ill lung transplant recipients. J Bronchology Interv Pulmonol 2014;21:199-207. https://doi.org/10.1097/LBR.0000000000000075
  25. Lee KH, Jeong SJ, Kim SY, et al. Effects of multidrug-resistant bacteria in donor lower respiratory tract on early posttransplant pneumonia in lung transplant recipients without pretransplant infection. Transplantation 2020;104:e98-106. https://doi.org/10.1097/tp.0000000000003102
  26. Oh DH, Kim YC, Kim EJ, et al. Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infection in lungtransplant recipients: risk factors and prognosis. Infect Dis (Lond) 2019;51:493-501. https://doi.org/10.1080/23744235.2018.1556400
  27. Lee KH, Han SH, Yong D, et al. Acquisition of carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in solid organ transplantation recipients. Transplant Proc 2018;50:3748-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2018.01.058
  28. Suh JW, Lee JG, Jeong SJ, Park MS, Kim SY, Paik HC. Risk of bronchial dehiscence in lung transplant recipients with carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella. Ann Thorac Surg 2020;110:265-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2020.01.076
  29. Fishman JA. Infection in solid-organ transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 2007;357:2601-14. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra064928
  30. Fishman JA, Rubin RH. Infection in organ-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1741-51. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199806113382407
  31. Kim SY, Shin JA, Cho EN, et al. Late respiratory infection after lung transplantation. Tuberc Respir Dis (Seoul) 2013;74:63-9. https://doi.org/10.4046/trd.2013.74.2.63
  32. Fisher RA. Cytomegalovirus infection and disease in the new era of immunosuppression following solid organ transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 2009;11:195-202. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3062.2009.00372.x
  33. Kwak SH, Lee SH, Park MS, et al. Risk factors for cytomegalovirus reactivation in lung transplant recipients. Lung 2020;198:829-38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00408-020-00380-z
  34. Kotton CN, Kumar D, Caliendo AM, et al. Updated international consensus guidelines on the management of cytomegalovirus in solid-organ transplantation. Transplantation 2013;96:333-60. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e31829df29d
  35. Vu DL, Bridevaux PO, Aubert JD, Soccal PM, Kaiser L. Respiratory viruses in lung transplant recipients: a critical review and pooled analysis of clinical studies. Am J Transplant 2011;11:1071-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2011.03490.x
  36. Neuringer IP. Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease after lung transplantation. Clin Dev Immunol 2013;2013:430209. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/430209
  37. Pereira MR, Mohan S, Cohen DJ, et al. COVID-19 in solid organ transplant recipients: initial report from the US epicenter. Am J Transplant 2020;20:1800-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.15941
  38. Messika J, Eloy P, Roux A, et al. COVID-19 in lung transplant recipients. Transplantation 2021;105:177-86. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000003508
  39. Nosotti M, Tarsia P, Morlacchi LC. Infections after lung transplantation. J Thorac Dis 2018;10:3849-68. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd.2018.05.204
  40. Doligalski CT, Benedict K, Cleveland AA, et al. Epidemiology of invasive mold infections in lung transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 2014;14:1328-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12691
  41. Pappas PG, Alexander BD, Andes DR, et al. Invasive fungal infections among organ transplant recipients: results of the Transplant-Associated Infection Surveillance Network (TRANSNET). Clin Infect Dis 2010;50:1101-11. https://doi.org/10.1086/651262
  42. Kennedy CC, Razonable RR. Fungal infections after lung transplantation. Clin Chest Med 2017;38:511-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccm.2017.04.011
  43. Mehrad B, Paciocco G, Martinez FJ, Ojo TC, Iannettoni MD, Lynch JP 3rd. Spectrum of Aspergillus infection in lung transplant recipients: case series and review of the literature. Chest 2001;119:169-75. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.119.1.169
  44. Hoenigl M, Prattes J, Spiess B, et al. Performance of galactomannan, beta-d-glucan, Aspergillus lateral-flow device, conventional culture, and PCR tests with bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for diagnosis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. J Clin Microbiol 2014;52:2039-45. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00467-14
  45. Patterson TF, Thompson GR 3rd, Denning DW, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of aspergillosis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2016;63:e1-60. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciw209
  46. Husain S, Paterson DL, Studer SM, et al. Aspergillus galactomannan antigen in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid for the diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in lung transplant recipients. Transplantation 2007;83:1330-6. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000263992.41003.33
  47. Baek YJ, Cho YS, Kim MH, et al. The prediction and prognosis of fungal infection in lung transplant recipients: a retrospective cohort study in South Korea. J Fungi (Basel) 2021;7:639. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7080639
  48. Kennedy CC, Pennington KM, Beam E, Razonable RR. Fungal infection in lung transplantation. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2021;42:471-82. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1729173
  49. Chen C, Bain KB, Iuppa JA, et al. Hyperammonemia syndrome after lung transplantation: a single center experience. Transplantation 2016;100:678-84. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000000868
  50. Bharat A, Scott Budinger GR, Ison MG. Donor-derived ureaplasma is a potentially lethal infection in lung allograft recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 2017;36:917-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2017.04.009
  51. Malouf MA, Glanville AR. The spectrum of mycobacterial infection after lung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;160(5Pt 1):1611-6. https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.160.5.9808113
  52. Park Y, Kim NE, Kwak SH, et al. Nontuberculous mycobacterial infection after lung transplantation: a single-center experience in South Korea. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2022;55:123-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.08.021
  53. Husain S, McCurry K, Dauber J, Singh N, Kusne S. Nocardia infection in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 2002;21:354-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-2498(01)00394-1
  54. Girgis RE, Tu I, Berry GJ, et al. Risk factors for the development of obliterative bronchiolitis after lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 1996;15:1200-8.
  55. Renaud-Picard B, Koutsokera A, Cabanero M, Martinu T. Acute rejection in the modern lung transplant era. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2021;42:411-27. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0041-1729542
  56. Burton CM, Iversen M, Carlsen J, et al. Acute cellular rejection is a risk factor for bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome independent of post-transplant baseline FEV1. J Heart Lung Transplant 2009;28:888-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2009.04.022
  57. Park CH, Paik HC, Haam SJ, et al. HRCT features of acute rejection in patients with bilateral lung transplantation: the usefulness of lesion distribution. Transplant Proc 2014;46:1511-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2013.12.060
  58. Stewart S, Fishbein MC, Snell GI, et al. Revision of the 1996 working formulation for the standardization of nomenclature in the diagnosis of lung rejection. J Heart Lung Transplant 2007;26:1229-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2007.10.017
  59. Todd JL, Neely ML, Kopetskie H, et al. Risk factors for acute rejection in the first year after lung transplant: a multicenter study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2020;202:576-85. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201910-1915oc
  60. Smith JD, Ibrahim MW, Newell H, et al. Pre-transplant donor HLA-specific antibodies: characteristics causing detrimental effects on survival after lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2014;33:1074-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2014.02.033
  61. Girnita AL, McCurry KR, Iacono AT, et al. HLA-specific antibodies are associated with high-grade and persistent-recurrent lung allograft acute rejection. J Heart Lung Transplant 2004;23:1135-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2003.08.030
  62. Park JE, Kim CY, Park MS, et al. Prevalence of pre-transplant anti-HLA antibodies and their impact on outcomes in lung transplant recipients. BMC Pulm Med 2018;18:45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12890-018-0606-8
  63. Moon SW, Park MS, Lee JG, et al. Panel-reactive and donor-specific antibodies before lung transplantation can affect outcomes in Korean patients receiving lung transplantation. Yonsei Med J 2020;61:606-13. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2020.61.7.606
  64. Kim HE, Yang YH, Paik HC, et al. The assessment and outcomes of crossmatching in lung transplantation in Korean patients. J Korean Med Sci 2022;37:e177. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2022.37.e177
  65. Levine DJ, Hachem RR. Lung allograft rejection. Thorac Surg Clin 2022;32:221-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thorsurg.2021.12.003
  66. Levine DJ, Glanville AR, Aboyoun C, et al. Antibody-mediated rejection of the lung: a consensus report of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2016; 35:397-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2016.01.1223
  67. Hackman KL, Snell GI, Bach LA. Prevalence and predictors of diabetes after lung transplantation: a prospective, longitudinal study. Diabetes Care 2014;37:2919-25. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc14-0663
  68. Sharif A, Hecking M, de Vries AP, et al. Proceedings from an international consensus meeting on posttransplantation diabetes mellitus: recommendations and future directions. Am J Transplant 2014;14:1992-2000. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12850
  69. American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: standards of medical care in diabetes-2021. Diabetes Care 2021;44(Suppl 1):S15-33. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc21-S002
  70. Hecking M, Haidinger M, Doller D, et al. Early basal insulin therapy decreases new-onset diabetes after renal transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol 2012;23:739-49. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2011080835
  71. Peled Y, Ram E, Lavee J, et al. Hypomagnesemia is associated with new-onset diabetes mellitus following heart transplantation. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2019;18:132. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-019-0939-5
  72. Yusen RD, Edwards LB, Dipchand AI, et al. The Registry of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation: thirty-third adult lung and heart-lung transplant report-2016; focus theme: primary diagnostic indications for transplant. J Heart Lung Transplant 2016;35:1170-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2016.09.001
  73. Fan J, Zhou K, Li S, Du H, Che G. Incidence, risk factors and prognosis of postoperative atrial arrhythmias after lung transplantation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2016;23:790-9. https://doi.org/10.1093/icvts/ivw208
  74. Lertjitbanjong P, Thongprayoon C, Cheungpasitporn W, et al. Acute kidney injury after lung transplantation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Med 2019;8:1713. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8101713
  75. Grzesk G, Wicinski M, Malinowski B, et al. Calcium blockers inhibit cyclosporine A-induced hyperreactivity of vascular smooth muscle cells. Mol Med Rep 2012;5:1469-74.
  76. Khan S, Khan I, Novak M, Regmi A, Difilippo W. The concomitant use of atorvastatin and amlodipine leading to rhabdomyolysis. Cureus 2018;10:e2020.
  77. Migliozzi DR, Asal NJ. Clinical controversy in transplantation: tacrolimus versus cyclosporine in statin drug interactions. Ann Pharmacother 2020;54:171-7. https://doi.org/10.1177/1060028019871891
  78. Orrego CM, Cordero-Reyes AM, Estep JD, et al. Atrial arrhythmias after lung transplant: underlying mechanisms, risk factors, and prognosis. J Heart Lung Transplant 2014;33:734-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2014.02.032
  79. Chaikriangkrai K, Jyothula S, Jhun HY, et al. Incidence, risk factors, prognosis, and electrophysiological mechanisms of atrial arrhythmias after lung transplantation. JACC Clin Electrophysiol 2015;1:296-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacep.2015.05.009
  80. Kim BG, Uhm JS, Yang PS, et al. Clinical significance of postoperative atrial arrhythmias in patients who underwent lung transplantation. Korean J Intern Med 2020;35:897-905. https://doi.org/10.3904/kjim.2018.326
  81. Du WW, Wang XX, Zhang D, Chen WQ, Zhang XL, Li PM. Retrospective analysis on incidence and risk factors of early onset acute kidney injury after lung transplantation and its association with mortality. Ren Fail 2021;43:535-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886022X.2021.1883652
  82. Valapour M, Lehr CJ, Skeans MA, et al. OPTN/SRTR 2019 annual data report: lung. Am J Transplant 2021;21 Suppl 2:441-520. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.16495
  83. Atchade E, Barour S, Tran-Dinh A, et al. Acute kidney injury after lung transplantation: perioperative risk factors and outcome. Transplant Proc 2020;52:967-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2020.01.018
  84. Banga A, Mohanka M, Mullins J, et al. Characteristics and outcomes among patients with need for early dialysis after lung transplantation surgery. Clin Transplant 2017;31:e13106. https://doi.org/10.1111/ctr.13106
  85. Kim NE, Kim CY, Kim SY, et al. Risk factors and mortality of acute kidney injury within 1 month after lung transplantation. Sci Rep 2021;11:17399. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96889-1
  86. Kim HE, Paik HC, Jeong SJ, Park MS, Kim SY, Lee JG. Basiliximab induction with delayed calcineurin inhibitors for high-risk lung transplant candidates. Yonsei Med J 2021;62:164-71. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2021.62.2.164
  87. Wehbe E, Brock R, Budev M, et al. Short-term and long-term outcomes of acute kidney injury after lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2012;31:244-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2011.08.016
  88. Ishani A, Erturk S, Hertz MI, Matas AJ, Savik K, Rosenberg ME. Predictors of renal function following lung or heart-lung transplantation. Kidney Int 2002;61:2228-34. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1755.2002.00361.x
  89. Esposito C, De Mauri A, Vitulo P, et al. Risk factors for chronic renal dysfunction in lung transplant recipients. Transplantation 2007;84:1701-3. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000295989.63674.53
  90. Ivulich S, Westall G, Dooley M, Snell G. The evolution of lung transplant immunosuppression. Drugs 2018;78:965-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-018-0930-6
  91. Bravo C, Gispert P, Borro JM, et al. Prevalence and management of gastrointestinal complications in lung transplant patients: MITOS study group. Transplant Proc 2007;39:2409-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.transproceed.2007.07.054
  92. Berkowitz N, Schulman LL, McGregor C, Markowitz D. Gastroparesis after lung transplantation: potential role in postoperative respiratory complications. Chest 1995;108:1602-7. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.108.6.1602
  93. Zevallos-Villegas A, Alonso-Moralejo R, Cambra F, et al. Morbidity and mortality of serious gastrointestinal complications after lung transplantation. J Cardiothorac Surg 2019;14:181. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13019-019-0983-y
  94. Lo WK, Burakoff R, Goldberg HJ, Feldman N, Chan WW. Pretransplant impedance measures of reflux are associated with early allograft injury after lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2015;34:26-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2014.09.005
  95. Paik HC, Kim DH, Lee DY, Yoon DS, Lee JH. Gastric ulcer perforation in heart-lung transplant patient: a successful case of early surgical intervention and management. Yonsei Med J 2003;44:1094-7. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2003.44.6.1094
  96. Lee SH, Park MS, Lee JG, et al. Rare causes of hyperbilirubinemia after lung transplantation: our experience at a single center. J Thorac Dis 2017;9:5030-9. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd.2017.11.118
  97. Kim HJ, Park MS, Son JW, et al. Radiological patterns of secondary sclerosing cholangitis in patients after lung transplantation. Abdom Radiol (NY) 2019;44:1361-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00261-018-1819-2
  98. Frost AE, Keller CA. Anemia and erythropoietin levels in recipients of solid organ transplants. The Multi-Organ Transplant Group. Transplantation 1993;56:1008-11.
  99. Nguyen DX, Singh SB, Minner SA, Pena T. Effect of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor on acute cellular rejection in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 2020;39(4 Supplement): S191.
  100. Hachem RR, Yusen RD, Chakinala MM, Aloush AA, Patterson GA, Trulock EP. Thrombotic microangiopathy after lung transplantation. Transplantation 2006;81:57-63. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.tp.0000188140.50673.63
  101. Qu L, Kiss JE. Thrombotic microangiopathy in transplantation and malignancy. Semin Thromb Hemost 2005;31:691-9. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-925475
  102. Myers JN, Shabshab SF, Burton NA, Nathan SD. Successful use of cyclosporine in a lung transplant recipient with tacrolimus-associated hemolytic uremic syndrome. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999;18:1024-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1053-2498(99)00056-X
  103. Silhan LL, Shah PD, Chambers DC, et al. Lung transplantation in telomerase mutation carriers with pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J 2014;44:178-87. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00060014
  104. Newton CA, Kozlitina J, Lines JR, Kaza V, Torres F, Garcia CK. Telomere length in patients with pulmonary fibrosis associated with chronic lung allograft dysfunction and post-lung transplantation survival. J Heart Lung Transplant 2017;36:845-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2017.02.005
  105. Ribeiro Neto ML, Budev M, Culver DA, et al. Venous thromboembolism after adult lung transplantation: a frequent event associated with lower survival. Transplantation 2018;102:681-7. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0000000000001977
  106. Yegen HA, Lederer DJ, Barr RG, et al. Risk factors for venous thromboembolism after lung transplantation. Chest 2007;132:547-53. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.07-0035
  107. Ortel TL, Neumann I, Ageno W, et al. American Society of Hematology 2020 guidelines for management of venous thromboembolism: treatment of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Blood Adv 2020;4:4693-738. https://doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2020001830
  108. Shigemura N, Sclabassi RJ, Bhama JK, et al. Early major neurologic complications after lung transplantation: incidence, risk factors, and outcome. Transplantation 2013;95:866-71. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e318280b359
  109. Smith PJ, Stonerock GL, Ingle KK, et al. Neurological sequelae and clinical outcomes after lung transplantation. Transplant Direct 2018;4:e353.
  110. Uhlmann EJ, Dunitz JM, Fiol ME. Pulmonary vein thrombosis after lung transplantation presenting as stroke. J Heart Lung Transplant 2009;28:209-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2008.11.909
  111. Chen S, Hu J, Xu L, Brandon D, Yu J, Zhang J. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome after transplantation: a review. Mol Neurobiol 2016;53:6897-909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-015-9560-0
  112. Fischer M, Schmutzhard E. Posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. J Neurol 2017;264:1608-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-016-8377-8
  113. Vaughn BV, Ali II, Olivier KN, et al. Seizures in lung transplant recipients. Epilepsia 1996;37:1175-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1157.1996.tb00549.x
  114. Kulak CA, Borba VZ, Kulak J Jr, Custodio MR. Osteoporosis after transplantation. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2012;10:48-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11914-011-0083-y
  115. Shane E, Silverberg SJ, Donovan D, et al. Osteoporosis in lung transplantation candidates with end-stage pulmonary disease. Am J Med 1996;101:262-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(96)00155-6
  116. Briot K, Roux C. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. RMD Open 2015;1:e000014. https://doi.org/10.1136/rmdopen-2014-000014
  117. Maalouf NM, Shane E. Osteoporosis after solid organ transplantation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:2456-65. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-1978
  118. Cahill BC, O'Rourke MK, Parker S, Stringham JC, Karwande SV, Knecht TP. Prevention of bone loss and fracture after lung transplantation: a pilot study. Transplantation 2001;72:1251-5. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007890-200110150-00012
  119. Kanis JA, Johnell O, Oden A, Johansson H, McCloskey E. FRAX and the assessment of fracture probability in men and women from the UK. Osteoporos Int 2008;19:385-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-007-0543-5
  120. Kanis JA, Johansson H, Oden A, McCloskey EV. Guidance for the adjustment of FRAX according to the dose of glucocorticoids. Osteoporos Int 2011;22:809-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-010-1524-7
  121. Rosenberger EM, Dew MA, DiMartini AF, DeVito Dabbs AJ, Yusen RD. Psychosocial issues facing lung transplant candidates, recipients and family caregivers. Thorac Surg Clin 2012;22:517-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thorsurg.2012.08.001
  122. Wingate BJ, Hansen-Flaschen J. Anxiety and depression in advanced lung disease. Clin Chest Med 1997;18:495-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-5231(05)70397-X
  123. Goetzmann L, Ruegg L, Stamm M, et al. Psychosocial profiles after transplantation: a 24-month follow-up of heart, lung, liver, kidney and allogeneic bone-marrow patients. Transplantation 2008;86:662-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/TP.0b013e3181817dd7
  124. Gries CJ, Dew MA, Curtis JR, et al. Nature and correlates of posttraumatic stress symptomatology in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 2013;32:525-32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2013.01.1046
  125. Scragg P, Jones A, Fauvel N. Psychological problems following ICU treatment. Anaesthesia 2001;56:9-14. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2044.2001.01714.x
  126. O'Brien SG, Carton EG, Fealy GM. Long-term health-related quality of life after venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. ASAIO J 2020;66:580-5. https://doi.org/10.1097/MAT.0000000000001042
  127. Anderson BJ, Chesley CF, Theodore M, et al. Incidence, risk factors, and clinical implications of post-operative delirium in lung transplant recipients. J Heart Lung Transplant 2018;37:755-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healun.2018.01.1295
  128. Sher Y, Mooney J, Dhillon G, Lee R, Maldonado JR. Delirium after lung transplantation: association with recipient characteristics, hospital resource utilization, and mortality. Clin Transplant 2017;31:10.1111/ctr.12966.
  129. Kanade R, Kler A, Banga A. Non-pulmonary complications after lung transplantation: part I. Indian J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2022;38(Suppl 2):280-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12055-021-01223-z
  130. Shtraichman O, Ahya VN. Malignancy after lung transplantation. Ann Transl Med 2020;8:416. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm.2020.02.126
  131. Cangemi M, Montico B, Fae DA, Steffan A, Dolcetti R. Dissecting the multiplicity of immune effects of immunosuppressive drugs to better predict the risk of de novo malignancies in solid organ transplant patients. Front Oncol 2019;9:160. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2019.00160
  132. Choi YJ, Kim SY, Park MS, Lee JG, Paik HC, Lee SH. Incidental lung cancer of explanted lungs from lung transplant recipients: incidence, characteristics, and 5-year survival. Yonsei Med J 2020;61:958-64. https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2020.61.11.958
  133. Courtwright AM, Burkett P, Divo M, et al. Posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders in Epstein-Barr virus donor positive/recipient negative lung transplant recipients. Ann Thorac Surg 2018;105:441-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.athoracsur.2017.09.033
  134. Cheng J, Moore CA, Iasella CJ, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in lung transplant recipients. Clin Transplant 2018;32:e13235. https://doi.org/10.1111/ctr.13235
  135. Funch DP, Walker AM, Schneider G, Ziyadeh NJ, Pescovitz MD. Ganciclovir and acyclovir reduce the risk of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 2005;5:2894-900. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01115.x
  136. Trappe R, Oertel S, Leblond V, et al. Sequential treatment with rituximab followed by CHOP chemotherapy in adult B-cell post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD): the prospective international multicentre phase 2 PTLD-1 trial. Lancet Oncol 2012;13:196-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70300-X
  137. Choquet S, Leblond V, Herbrecht R, et al. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in B-cell post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorders: results of a prospective multicenter phase 2 study. Blood 2006;107:3053-7. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2005-01-0377
  138. Kanade R, Kler A, Banga A. Non-pulmonary complications after lung transplantation: part II. Indian J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2022;38(Suppl 2):290-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12055-021-01231-z
  139. Chang YS, Kim Y, Kim DY, et al. Two cases of post transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in lung transplant recipients. Korean J Intern Med 2004;19:276-81. https://doi.org/10.3904/kjim.2004.19.4.276