Acknowledgement
The trial drugs and armamentariums were provided by the Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery Department of Tribhuvan University, Nepal. The authors thank all the participants for their voluntary participation in this study. We acknowledge Mr. Dharanidhar Baral and Mrs. Rachana Deo for their contribution to statistical analysis and language editing, respectively.
References
- Calatayud J, Gonzalez A. History of the development and evolution of local anesthesia since the coca leaf. Anesthesiology 2003;98:1503-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-200306000-00031
- Ogle OE, Mahjoubi G. Advances in local anesthesia in dentistry. Dent Clin North Am 2011;55:481-99, viii. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2011.02.007
- Albaladejo P, Aubrun F, Samama CM, Jouffroy L, Beaussier M, Benhamou D, et al. The structure, organisation and perioperative management of ambulatory surgery and anaesthesia in France: methodology of the SFAR-OPERA study. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med 2017;36:307-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.accpm.2016.10.002
- Yagiela JA. Recent developments in local anesthesia and oral sedation. Compend Contin Educ Dent 2004;25:697-706; quiz 708.
- Chew ST, Tan T, Tan SS, Ip-Yam PC. A survey of patients' knowledge of anaesthesia and perioperative care. Singapore Med J 1998;39:399-402.
- Buvanendran A, Fiala J, Patel KA, Golden AD, Moric M, Kroin JS. The incidence and severity of postoperative pain following inpatient surgery. Pain Med 2015;16:2277-83. https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12751
- Gan TJ, Habib AS, Miller TE, White W, Apfelbaum JL. Incidence, patient satisfaction, and perceptions of post-surgical pain: results from a US national survey. Curr Med Res Opin 2014;30:149-60. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2013.860019
- Meissner W, Coluzzi F, Fletcher D, Huygen F, Morlion B, Neuge-bauer E, et al. Improving the management of post-operative acute pain: priorities for change. Curr Med Res Opin 2015;31:2131-43. https://doi.org/10.1185/03007995.2015.1092122
- Deo SP. Effect of submucosal injection of dexamethasone on postoperative sequelae of third molar surgery. JNMA J Nepal Med Assoc 2011;51:72-8.
- Deo SP. Role of addition of dexamethasone to lignocaine 2% with adrenaline in dental nerve blocks for third molar surgery: a prospective randomized control trial. Ann Maxillofac Surg 2016;6:260-6. https://doi.org/10.4103/2231-0746.200341
- Latt MM, Kiattavorncharoen S, Boonsiriseth K, Pairuchvej V, Wongsirichat N. The efficacy of dexamethasone injection on postoperative pain in lower third molar surgery. J Dent Anesth Pain Med 2016;16:95-102. https://doi.org/10.17245/jdapm.2016.16.2.95
- Barden J, Edwards JE, McQuay HJ, Andrew Moore R. Pain and analgesic response after third molar extraction and other postsurgical pain. Pain 2004;107:86-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2003.09.021
- Markovic AB, Todorovic L. Postoperative analgesia after lower third molar surgery: contribution of the use of long-acting local anesthetics, low-power laser, and diclofenac. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2006;102:e4-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tripleo.2006.02.024
- Danielsson K, Evers H, Holmlund A, Kjellman O, Nordenram A, Persson NE. Long-acting local anaesthetics in oral surgery. Clinical evaluation of bupivacaine and etidocaine for mandibular nerve block. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1986;15:119-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0300-9785(86)80131-4
- Crincoli V, Favia G, LImongelli L, Tempesta A, Brienza N. The effectiveness of ropivacaine and mepivacaine in the postoperative pain after third lower molar surgery. Int J Med Sci 2015;12:862-6. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijms.13072
- Prabhakar A, Lambert T, Kaye RJ, Gaignard SM, Ragusa J, Wheat S, et al. Adjuvants in clinical regional anesthesia practice: a comprehensive review. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2019;33:415-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpa.2019.06.001
- Renck H, Hassan HG. Epinephrine as an adjuvant to amino-amide local anesthetics does not prolong their duration of action in infraorbital nerve block in the rat. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1992;36:387-92. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-6576.1992.tb03486.x
- Marhofer P, Columb M, Hopkins PM, Greher M, Marhofer D, Bienzle M, et al. Dexamethasone as an adjuvant for peripheral nerve blockade: a randomised, triple-blinded crossover study in volunteers. Br J Anaesth 2019;122:525-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2019.01.004
- Swami SS, Keniya VM, Ladi SD, Rao R. Comparison of dexmedetomidine and clonidine (α2 agonist drugs) as an adjuvant to local anaesthesia in supraclavicular brachial plexus block: a randomised double-blind prospective study. Indian J Anaesth 2012;56:243-9. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5049.98767
- Zhang C, Li C, Pirrone M, Sun L, Mi W. Comparison of dexmedetomidine and clonidine as adjuvants to local anesthetics for intrathecal anesthesia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Pharmacol 2016;56:827-34. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcph.666
- McCartney CJ, Duggan E, Apatu E. Should we add clonidine to local anesthetic for peripheral nerve blockade? A qualitative systematic review of the literature. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2007;32:330-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rapm.2007.02.010
- Bharti N, Sardana DK, Bala I. The analgesic efficacy of dexmedetomidine as an adjunct to local anesthetics in supraclavicular brachial plexus block: a randomized controlled trial. Anesth Analg 2015;121:1655-60. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000001006
- Candido KD, Winnie AP, Ghaleb AH, Fattouh MW, Franco CD. Buprenorphine added to the local anesthetic for axillary brachial plexus block prolongs postoperative analgesia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2002;27:162-7. https://doi.org/10.1053/rapm.2002.30671
- Shah A, Halli R, Merchant Y, Kshirsagar R, Khurana J. Efficacy of ketamine as an adjunct to local anesthesia in the surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molars - a split mouth prospective controlled clinical study. J Clin Diagn Res 2016;10:ZC29-33. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2016/19677.8638
- Ettinger KS, Jacob AK, Viozzi CF, Van Ess JM, Fillmore WJ, Arce K. Does intravenous midazolam dose influence the duration of recovery room stay following outpatient third molar surgery? J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2015;73:2287-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2015.06.164
- Tempestini Horliana AC, de Brito MA, Perez FE, Simonetti MP, Rocha RG, Borsatti MA. Hyaluronidase increases the duration of mepivacaine in inferior alveolar nerve blocks. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2008;66:286-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2007.06.628
- Yadav RK, Sah BP, Kumar P, Singh SN. Effectiveness of addition of neostigmine or dexamethasone to local anaesthetic in providing perioperative analgesia for brachial plexus block: a prospective, randomized, double blinded, controlled study. Kathmandu Univ Med J (KUMJ) 2008;6:302-9. https://doi.org/10.3126/kumj.v6i3.1704
- Shah DM, Arora M, Trikha A, Prasad G, Sunder R, Kotwal P, et al. Comparison of dexamethasone and clonidine as an adjuvant to 1.5% lignocaine with adrenaline in infraclavicular brachial plexus block for upper limb surgeries. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol 2015;31:354-9. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-9185.161672
- Biradar PA, Kaimar P, Gopalakrishna K. Effect of dexamethasone added to lidocaine in supraclavicular brachial plexus block: a prospective, randomised, double-blind study. Indian J Anaesth 2013;57:180-4. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5049.111850
- Alzeftawy AE, El Morad MB. Dexamethasone compared to dexmedetomidine as an adjuvant to local anesthetic mixture in peribulbar block for vitreoretinal surgery. A prospective randomized study. Anesth Essays Res 2018;12:359-65. https://doi.org/10.4103/aer.AER_224_17
- Vadhanan P, Ganesh N, Ahmed MIH. Comparison of dexamethasone and buprenorphine as adjuvant in ultrasound-guided brachial plexus blocks: a randomized controlled trial. Anesth Essays Res 2018;12:176-9. https://doi.org/10.4103/aer.AER_129_17
- Kheirabadi D, Shafa A, Hirmanpour A, Zareh F. Prophylactic effects of intravenous dexamethasone and lidocaine on attenuating hemodynamic-respiratory and pain complications in children undergoing cleft palate repair surgery with general anesthesia. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother 2020;34:63-8. https://doi.org/10.1080/15360288.2019.1706691
- McHardy PG, Singer O, Awad IT, Safa B, Henry PDG, Kiss A, et al. Comparison of the effects of perineural or intravenous dexamethasone on low volume interscalene brachial plexus block: a randomised equivalence trial. Br J Anaesth 2020;124:84-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2019.08.025
- Choi S, Rodseth R, McCartney CJ. Effects of dexamethasone as a local anaesthetic adjuvant for brachial plexus block: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Br J Anaesth 2014;112:427-39. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aet417
- Bhargava D, Sreekumar K, Rastogi S, Deshpande A, Chakravorty N. A prospective randomized double-blind study to assess the latency and efficacy of twin-mix and 2% lignocaine with 1:200,000 epinephrine in surgical removal of impacted mandibular third molars: a pilot study. Oral Maxillofac Surg 2013;17:275-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10006-012-0372-3
- Calvo AM, Santos GM, Dionisio TJ, Marques MP, Brozoski DT, Lanchote VL, et al. Quantification of piroxicam and 5'-hydroxypiroxicam in human plasma and saliva using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry following oral administration. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016;120:212-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2015.12.042
- Hargreaves KM, Schmidt EA, Mueller GP, Dionne RA. Dexamethasone alters plasma levels of beta-endorphin and postoperative pain. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1987;42:601-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/clpt.1987.206
- Hosgor H, Coskunses FM, Tokuc B. Correlation between preoperative pressure pain assessments and anxiety and postoperative pain in impacted lower third molar surgery. J Korean Assoc Oral Maxillofac Surg 2021;47:15-9. https://doi.org/10.5125/jkaoms.2021.47.1.15
- Benzon HT, Chew TL, McCarthy RJ, Benzon HA, Walega DR. Comparison of the particle sizes of different steroids and the effect of dilution: a review of the relative neurotoxicities of the steroids. Anesthesiology 2007;106:331-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-200702000-00022
- Alexander RE, Throndson RR. A review of perioperative corticosteroid use in dentoalveolar surgery. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2000;90:406-15. https://doi.org/10.1067/moe.2000.109778
- Markiewicz MR, Brady MF, Ding EL, Dodson TB. Corticosteroids reduce postoperative morbidity after third molar surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2008;66:1881-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2008.04.022