The Korean Journal of Pain

The Korean Pain Society (대한통증학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Pharmacological and non-pharmacological strategies for preventing postherpetic neuralgia: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

  • Kim, Junhyeok (Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Kim, Min Kyoung (Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Choi, Geun Joo (Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Shin, Hwa Yong (Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Kim, Beom Gyu (Department of Surgery, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine) ;
  • Kang, Hyun (Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine)
  • Received : 2021.07.26
  • Accepted : 2021.08.29
  • Published : 2021.10.01
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Background: Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a refractory complication of herpes zoster (HZ). To prevent PHN, various strategies have been aggressively adopted. However, the efficacy of these strategies remains controversial. Therefore, we aimed to estimate the relative efficacy of various strategies used in clinical practice for preventing PHN using a network meta-analysis (NMA). Methods: We performed a systematic and comprehensive search to identify all randomized controlled trials. The primary outcome was the incidence of PHN at 3 months after acute HZ. We performed both frequentist and Bayesian NMA and used the surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) values to rank the interventions evaluated. Results: In total, 39 studies were included in the systematic review and NMA. According to the SUCRA value, the incidence of PHN was lower in the order of continuous epidural block with local anesthetics and steroids (EPI-LSE), antiviral agents with subcutaneous injection of local anesthetics and steroids (AV + sLS), antiviral agents with intracutaenous injection of local anesthetics and steroids (AV + iLS) at 3 months after acute HZ. EPI-LSE, AV + sLS and AV + iLS were also effective in preventing PHN at 1 month after acute HZ. And paravertebral block combined with antiviral and antiepileptic agents was effective in preventing PHN at 1, 3, and 6 months. Conclusions: The continuous epidural block with local anesthetics and steroid, antiviral agents with intracutaneous or subcutaneous injection of local anesthetics and a steroid, and paravertebral block combined with antiviral and antiepileptic agents are effective in preventing PHN.

Keywords

References

  1. Kawai K, Gebremeskel BG, Acosta CJ. Systematic review of incidence and complications of herpes zoster: towards a global perspective. BMJ Open 2014; 4: e004833. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2014-004833
  2. Yawn BP, Gilden D. The global epidemiology of herpes zoster. Neurology 2013; 81: 928-30. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182a3516e
  3. Johnson RW, Alvarez-Pasquin MJ, Bijl M, Franco E, Gaillat J, Clara JG, et al. Herpes zoster epidemiology, management, and disease and economic burden in Europe: a multidisciplinary perspective. Ther Adv Vaccines 2015; 3: 109-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/2051013615599151
  4. Erskine N, Tran H, Levin L, Ulbricht C, Fingeroth J, Kiefe C, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis on herpes zoster and the risk of cardiac and cerebrovascular events. PLoS One 2017; 12: e0181565. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181565
  5. Forbes HJ, Thomas SL, Smeeth L, Clayton T, Farmer R, Bhaskaran K, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of risk factors for postherpetic neuralgia. Pain 2016; 157: 30-54. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000307
  6. Nahm FS, Kim SH, Kim HS, Shin JW, Yoo SH, Yoon MH, et al. Survey on the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia in Korea; multicenter study of 1,414 patients. Korean J Pain 2013; 26: 21-6. https://doi.org/10.3344/kjp.2013.26.1.21
  7. Sacks GM. Unmet need in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. Am J Manag Care 2013; 19(1 Suppl): S207-13.
  8. Johnson RW, Bouhassira D, Kassianos G, Leplege A, Schmader KE, Weinke T. The impact of herpes zoster and post-herpetic neuralgia on quality-of-life. BMC Med 2010; 8: 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-37
  9. Schmader KE. Epidemiology and impact on quality of life of postherpetic neuralgia and painful diabetic neuropathy. Clin J Pain 2002; 18: 350-4. https://doi.org/10.1097/00002508-200211000-00002
  10. Xing XF, Zhou ZF, Zhang FJ, Yan M. The effect of early use of supplemental therapy on preventing postherpetic neuralgia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain Physician 2017; 20: 471-86.
  11. Han Y, Zhang J, Chen N, He L, Zhou M, Zhu C. Corticosteroids for preventing postherpetic neuralgia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; (3): CD005582.
  12. Chen N, Li Q, Yang J, Zhou M, Zhou D, He L. Antiviral treatment for preventing postherpetic neuralgia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (2): CD006866.
  13. Kim HJ, Ahn HS, Lee JY, Choi SS, Cheong YS, Kwon K, et al. Effects of applying nerve blocks to prevent postherpetic neuralgia in patients with acute herpes zoster: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Korean J Pain 2017; 30: 3-17. https://doi.org/10.3344/kjp.2017.30.1.3
  14. Jansen JP, Naci H. Is network meta-analysis as valid as standard pairwise meta-analysis? It all depends on the distribution of effect modifiers. BMC Med 2013; 11: 159. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-159
  15. Shamseer L, Moher D, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, Petticrew M, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015: elaboration and explanation. BMJ 2015; 350: g7647.
  16. Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, et al. Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. 2nd ed. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons. 2019.
  17. Cornell JE. The PRISMA extension for network metaanalysis: bringing clarity and guidance to the reporting of systematic reviews incorporating network meta-analyses. Ann Intern Med 2015; 162: 797-8. https://doi.org/10.7326/M15-0930
  18. Viera AJ, Garrett JM. Understanding interobserver agreement: the kappa statistic. Fam Med 2005; 37: 360-3.
  19. Higgins JPT, Sterne JAC, Savovic J, Page MJ, Hrobjartsson A, Boutron I, et al. A revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomized trials. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 10 Suppl 1: 29-31.
  20. Chaimani A, Higgins JP, Mavridis D, Spyridonos P, Salanti G. Graphical tools for network meta-analysis in STATA. PLoS One 2013; 8: e76654. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076654
  21. White IR, Barrett JK, Jackson D, Higgins JP. Consistency and inconsistency in network meta-analysis: model estimation using multivariate meta-regression. Res Synth Methods 2012; 3: 111-25. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1045
  22. Salanti G, Ades AE, Ioannidis JP. Graphical methods and numerical summaries for presenting results from multiple-treatment meta-analysis: an overview and tutorial. J Clin Epidemiol 2011; 64: 163-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2010.03.016
  23. Riley RD, Higgins JP, Deeks JJ. Interpretation of random effects meta-analyses. BMJ 2011; 342: d549. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d549
  24. van Valkenhoef G, Lu G, de Brock B, Hillege H, Ades AE, Welton NJ. Automating network meta-analysis. Res Synth Methods 2012; 3: 285-99. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1054
  25. Atkins D, Best D, Briss PA, Eccles M, Falck-Ytter Y, Flottorp S, et al. Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. BMJ 2004; 328: 1490. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.328.7454.1490
  26. Canadian Pain Society Study Day participants. Safety and effectiveness of the herpes zoster vaccine to prevent postherpetic neuralgia: 2014 update and consensus statement from the Canadian Pain Society. Pain Res Manag 2015; 20: 46-7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/438597
  27. Dworkin RH, Boon RJ, Griffin DR, Phung D. Postherpetic neuralgia: impact of famciclovir, age, rash severity, and acute pain in herpes zoster patients. J Infect Dis 1998; 178 Suppl 1: S76-80. https://doi.org/10.1086/514260
  28. Dworkin RH, Schmader KE. Treatment and prevention of postherpetic neuralgia. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36: 877-82. https://doi.org/10.1086/368196
  29. Gawecka E, Viken O. Postherpetic neuralgia: new hopes in prevention with adult vaccination and in treatment with a concentrated capsaicin patch. Scand J Pain 2012; 3: 220-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjpain.2012.05.070
  30. Gilden D. Efficacy of live zoster vaccine in preventing zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. J Intern Med 2011; 269: 496-506. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2011.02359.x
  31. Jackson JL, Gibbons R, Meyer G, Inouye L. The effect of treating herpes zoster with oral acyclovir in preventing postherpetic neuralgia. A meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157: 909-12. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1997.00440290095010
  32. Wood MJ, Kay R, Dworkin RH, Soong SJ, Whitley RJ. Oral acyclovir therapy accelerates pain resolution in patients with herpes zoster: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 341-7. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/22.2.341
  33. Wu CL, Marsh A, Dworkin RH. The role of sympathetic nerve blocks in herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. Pain 2000; 87: 121-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(00)00230-X
  34. Huff JC, Drucker JL, Clemmer A, Laskin OL, Connor JD, Bryson YJ, et al. Effect of oral acyclovir on pain resolution in herpes zoster: a reanalysis. J Med Virol 1993; Suppl 1: 93-6.
  35. Surman OS, Flynn T, Schooley RT, Baer L, Parker S, Hirsch MS, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of oral acyclovir in postherpetic neuralgia. Psychosomatics 1990; 31: 287-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(90)72166-4
  36. Whitley RJ, Weiss H, Gnann JW Jr, Tyring S, Mertz GJ, Pappas PG, et al. Acyclovir with and without prednisone for the treatment of herpes zoster. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125: 376-83. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-125-5-199609010-00004
  37. Balakrishnan S, Bhushan K, Bhargava VK, Pandhi P. A randomized parallel trial of topical aspirin-moisturizer solution vs. oral aspirin for acute herpetic neuralgia. Int J Dermatol 2001; 40: 535-8. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-4362.2001.01265.x
  38. Bareggi SR, Pirola R, De Benedittis G. Skin and plasma levels of acetylsalicylic acid: a comparison between topical aspirin/diethyl ether mixture and oral aspirin in acute herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 54: 231-5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002280050451
  39. Bruni L, Tagliapietra G, Innocenti P. Herpes zoster treatments: results of a clinical trial relative to the use of rifamycin SV versus neuramide. J Int Med Res 1984; 12: 255-60. https://doi.org/10.1177/030006058401200406
  40. Dworkin RH, Barbano RL, Tyring SK, Betts RF, McDermott MP, Pennella-Vaughan J, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of oxycodone and of gabapentin for acute pain in herpes zoster. Pain 2009; 142: 209-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2008.12.022
  41. Higa K, Hori K, Harasawa I, Hirata K, Dan K. High thoracic epidural block relieves acute herpetic pain involving the trigeminal and cervical regions: comparison with effects of stellate ganglion block. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1998; 23: 25-9.
  42. Isbary G, Shimizu T, Zimmermann JL, Heinlin J, Al-Zaabi S, Rechfeld M, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial showed cold atmospheric argon plasma relieved acute pain and accelerated healing in herpes zoster. Clin Plasma Med 2014; 2: 50-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpme.2014.07.001
  43. Jensen-Dahm C, Rowbotham MC, Reda H, Petersen KL. Effect of a single dose of pregabalin on herpes zoster pain. Trials 2011; 12: 55. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-12-55
  44. Liang L, Li X, Zhang G, Sun Y, Yu H, Jiao J. Pregabalin in the treatment of herpetic neuralgia: results of a multicenter Chinese study. Pain Med 2015; 16: 160-7. https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12564
  45. Lin PL, Fan SZ, Huang CH, Huang HH, Tsai MC, Lin CJ, et al. Analgesic effect of lidocaine patch 5% in the treatment of acute herpes zoster: a double-blind and vehicle-controlled study. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2008; 33: 320-5. https://doi.org/10.1097/00115550-200807000-00006
  46. McKendrick MW, Care C, Burke C, Hickmott E, McKendrick GD. Oral acyclovir in herpes zoster. J Antimicrob Chemother 1984; 14: 661-5. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/14.6.661
  47. Mondelli M, Romano C, Passero S, Porta PD, Rossi A. Effects of acyclovir on sensory axonal neuropathy, segmental motor paresis and postherpetic neuralgia in herpes zoster patients. Eur Neurol 1996; 36: 288-92. https://doi.org/10.1159/000117274
  48. Winnie AP, Hartwell PW. Relationship between time of treatment of acute herpes zoster with sympathetic blockade and prevention of post-herpetic neuralgia: clinical support for a new theory of the mechanism by which sympathetic blockade provides therapeutic benefit. Reg Anesth 1993; 18: 277-82.
  49. Hui F, Boyle E, Vayda E, Glazier RH. A randomized controlled trial of a multifaceted integrated complementary-alternative therapy for chronic herpes zoster-related pain. Altern Med Rev 2012; 17: 57-68.
  50. Juel-Jensen BE, Khan JA, Pasvol G. High-dose intravenous acyclovir in the treatment of zoster: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Infect 1983; 6(1 Suppl): 31-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-4453(83)94096-3
  51. Kikuchi A, Kotani N, Sato T, Takamura K, Sakai I, Matsuki A. Comparative therapeutic evaluation of intrathecal versus epidural methylprednisolone for long-term analgesia in patients with intractable postherpetic neuralgia. Reg Anesth Pain Med 1999; 24: 287-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1098-7339(99)90101-3
  52. van den Broek PJ, van der Meer JW, Mulder JD, Versteeg J, Mattie H. Limited value of acyclovir in the treatment of uncomplicated herpes zoster: a placebo-controlled study. Infection 1984; 12: 338-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01651148
  53. Beutner KR, Friedman DJ, Forszpaniak C, Andersen PL, Wood MJ. Valaciclovir compared with acyclovir for improved therapy for herpes zoster in immunocompetent adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 1546-53. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.39.7.1546
  54. Yanagida H, Suwa K, Corssen G. No prophylactic effect of early sympathetic blockade on postherpetic neuralgia. Anesthesiology 1987; 66: 73-6. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-198701000-00015
  55. Sederholm B, Peterson D. Zoster vaccine to prevent postherpetic neuralgia. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother 2006; 20: 41-2. https://doi.org/10.1080/J354v20n04_07
  56. Dai J, Yin AH, Zhou Y, Yin LJ. [Herpes zoster treated with meridian-collateral electric information therapy combined with pricking and cupping]. Zhongguo Zhen Jiu 2011; 31: 416-9. Chinese.
  57. Fujii H, Fukushima T, Ishii M, Nagano Y, Kawanishi S, Watanabe Y, et al. [The efficacy of intravenous lidocaine for acute herpetic pain--placebo controlled trial]. Masui 2009; 58: 1413-7. Japanese.
  58. Galbraith AW. Prevention of post-herpetic neuralgia by amantadine hydrochloride (Symmetrel). Br J Clin Pract 1983; 37: 304-6.
  59. Morton P, Thomson AN. Oral acyclovir in the treatment of herpes zoster in general practice. N Z Med J 1989; 102: 93-5.
  60. Peng Z, Wang S, Huang X, Xiao P. Effect of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on patients with herpes zoster. Undersea Hyperb Med 2012; 39: 1083-7.
  61. Varotti C, Rafanelli A. Evaluation of efficacy and tolerance of neuramide in the treatment of herpes zoster and postherpetic neuritis. Drugs Exp Clin Res 2001; 27: 199-208.
  62. Wood MJ, Ogan PH, McKendrick MW, Care CD, McGill JI, Webb EM. Efficacy of oral acyclovir treatment of acute herpes zoster. Am J Med 1988; 85(2A): 79-83.
  63. Harding SP, Lipton JR, Wells JC. Natural history of herpes zoster ophthalmicus: predictors of postherpetic neuralgia and ocular involvement. Br J Ophthalmol 1987; 71: 353-8. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo.71.5.353
  64. Barbarisi M, Pace MC, Passavanti MB, Maisto M, Mazzariello L, Pota V, et al. Pregabalin and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for postherpetic neuralgia treatment. Clin J Pain 2010; 26: 567-72. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0b013e3181dda1ac
  65. Guo W, Xiao Z, Yang Y. Effectiveness of transdermal fentanyl combined with clodine for pain control of acute herpes zoster. J Dalian Med Univ 2007; 29: 255-6. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-7295.2007.03.016
  66. Tenicela R, Lovasik D, Eaglstein W. Treatment of herpes zoster with sympathetic blocks. Clin J Pain 1985; 1: 63-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/00002508-198501020-00002
  67. Wang JS. The comparison of therapeutic effect of three methods for the treatment of acute herpes zoster. Curr Opin Clin Exp Res 2002; 4: 12-5.
  68. Huff JC, Bean B, Balfour HH Jr, Laskin OL, Connor JD, Corey L, et al. Therapy of herpes zoster with oral acyclovir. Am J Med 1988; 85(2A): 84-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(88)90508-6
  69. McKendrick MW, McGill JI, White JE, Wood MJ. Oral acyclovir in acute herpes zoster. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986; 293: 1529-32. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.293.6561.1529
  70. Opstelten W, van Wijck AJ, Moons KG, van Essen GA, Stolker RJ, Kalkman CJ, et al. [Treatment of patients with herpes zoster by epidural injection of steroids and local anaesthetics: less pain after 1 month, but no effect on long-term postherpetic neuralgia--a randomised trial]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2006; 150: 2649-55. Dutch.
  71. Peterslund NA, Seyer-Hansen K, Ipsen J, Esmann V, Schonheyder H, Juhl H. Acyclovir in herpes zoster. Lancet 1981; 2: 827-30.
  72. Colin J, Prisant O, Cochener B, Lescale O, Rolland B, HoangXuan T. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of valaciclovir and acyclovir for the treatment of herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 2000; 107: 1507-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(00)00222-0
  73. Fujiwara A, Watanabe K, Hashizume K, Shinohara K, Kawaguchi M. Transforaminal vs interlaminar epidural steroid injection for acute-phase shingles: a randomized, prospective trial. Pain Physician 2018; 21: 373-82.
  74. Hoang-Xuan T, Buchi ER, Herbort CP, Denis J, Frot P, Thenault S, et al. Oral acyclovir for herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 1992; 99: 1062-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(92)31849-4
  75. Tyring SK, Beutner KR, Tucker BA, Anderson WC, Crooks RJ. Antiviral therapy for herpes zoster: randomized, controlled clinical trial of valacyclovir and famciclovir therapy in immunocompetent patients 50 years and older. Arch Fam Med 2000; 9: 863-9. https://doi.org/10.1001/archfami.9.9.863
  76. Sharif S, Aslam F, Faisal LR, Saleem MA. Comparison of efficacy of two different doses of famciclovir in the prevention and treatment of postherpetic neuralgia. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad 2019; 31(4 Suppl 1): S668-71.
  77. Tyring SK, Lee P, Hill GT Jr, Silverfield JC, Moore AY, Matkovits T, et al. FV-100 versus valacyclovir for the prevention of post-herpetic neuralgia and the treatment of acute herpes zoster-associated pain: a randomized-controlled trial. J Med Virol 2017; 89: 1255-64. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.24750
  78. Finn R, Smith MA. Oral acyclovir for herpes zoster. Lancet 1984; 2: 575. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(84)90785-2
  79. Hwang SM, Kang YC, Lee YB, Yoon KB, Ahn SK, Choi EH. The effects of epidural blockade on the acute pain in herpes zoster. Arch Dermatol 1999; 135: 1359-64.
  80. Malin JP. A retrospective and an observational study with acyclovir. J Med Virol 1993; Suppl 1: 102-5.
  81. Colding A. Treatment of pain: organization of a pain clinic: treatment of acute herpes zoster. Proc R Soc Med 1973; 66: 541-3.
  82. Colding A. The effect of regional sympathetic blocks in the treatment of herpes zoster: a survey of 300 cases. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1969; 13: 133-41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-6576.1969.tb00440.x
  83. Bean B, Braun C, Balfour HH Jr. Acyclovir therapy for acute herpes zoster. Lancet 1982; 2: 118-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)92917-X
  84. Esmann V, Ipsen J, Peterslund NA, Seyer-Hansen K, Schon-heyder H, Juhl H. Therapy of acute herpes zoster with acyclovir in the nonimmunocompromised host. Am J Med 1982; 73(1A): 320-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(82)90116-4
  85. Balfour HH Jr, Bean B, Laskin OL, Ambinder RF, Meyers JD, Wade JC, et al. Acyclovir halts progression of herpes zoster in immunocompromised patients. N Engl J Med 1983; 308: 1448-53. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198306163082404
  86. McGill J, MacDonald DR, Fall C, McKendrick GD, Copple-stone A. Intravenous acyclovir in acute herpes zoster infection. J Infect 1983; 6: 157-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-4453(83)92787-1
  87. Cobo LM, Foulks GN, Liesegang T, Lass J, Sutphin JE, Wilhelmus K, et al. Oral acyclovir in the treatment of acute herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ophthalmology 1986; 93: 763-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-6420(86)33678-9
  88. Esmann V, Geil JP, Kroon S, Fogh H, Peterslund NA, Petersen CS, et al. Prednisolone does not prevent post-herpetic neuralgia. Lancet 1987; 2: 126-9.
  89. Wassilew SW, Reimlinger S, Nasemann T, Jones D. Oral acyclovir for herpes zoster: a double-blind controlled trial in normal subjects. Br J Dermatol 1987; 117: 495-501. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1987.tb04930.x
  90. Mandal BK, Dunbar EM, Ellis ME, Ellis J, Dowd P. A double-masked, placebo-controlled trial of acyclovir cream in immunocompetent patients with herpes zoster. J Infect 1988; 17: 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-4453(88)92356-0
  91. Payne CM, Menday AP, Rogers T, Staughton RC. Isoprinosine does not influence the natural history of herpes zoster or postherpetic neuralgia. Scand J Infect Dis 1989; 21: 15-8. https://doi.org/10.3109/00365548909035675
  92. Benoldi D, Mirizzi S, Zucchi A, Allegra F. Prevention of post-herpetic neuralgia. Evaluation of treatment with oral prednisone, oral acyclovir, and radiotherapy. Int J Dermatol 1991; 30: 288-90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-4362.1991.tb04642.x
  93. Bowsher D. The effects of pre-emptive treatment of postherpetic neuralgia with amitriptyline: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Pain Symptom Manage 1997; 13: 327-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-3924(97)00077-8
  94. Ahmed HE, Craig WF, White PF, Ghoname ES, Hamza MA, Gajraj NM, et al. Percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation: an alternative to antiviral drugs for acute herpes zoster. Anesth Analg 1998; 87: 911-4. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000539-199810000-00031
  95. Lee IH, Kim BS, Lee SC, Jo DH. The effect of stellate ganglion block on the pain of acute stage and the prevention of postherpetic neuralgin in the treatment of senile herpes zoster patients. Korean J Dermatol 1999; 37: 571-9.
  96. van Wijck AJ, Opstelten W, Moons KG, van Essen GA, Stolker RJ, Kalkman CJ, et al. The PINE study of epidural steroids and local anaesthetics to prevent postherpetic neuralgia: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367: 219-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68032-X
  97. Ji G, Niu J, Shi Y, Hou L, Lu Y, Xiong L. The effectiveness of repetitive paravertebral injections with local anesthetics and steroids for the prevention of postherpetic neuralgia in patients with acute herpes zoster. Anesth Analg 2009; 109: 1651-5. https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181b79075
  98. Krcevski Skvarc N, Kamenik M. Effects of pregabalin on acute herpetic pain and postherpetic neuralgia incidence. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2010; 122 Suppl 2: 49-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-010-1345-x
  99. Kanodia SK, Singhal KC. A study on efficacy of Pregabalin in acute Herpetic Neuralgia. Ann Neurosci 2011; 18: 148-50. https://doi.org/10.5214/ans.0972.7531.1118405
  100. Kanodia SK, Seth AK, Dixit AM. Dose related efficacy of gabapentin in acute herpetic neuralgia among geriatric patients. Indian J Dermatol 2012; 57: 362-5. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.100476
  101. Makharita MY, Amr YM, El-Bayoumy Y. Effect of early stellate ganglion blockade for facial pain from acute herpes zoster and incidence of postherpetic neuralgia. Pain Physician 2012; 15: 467-74.
  102. Makharita MY, Amr YM, El-Bayoumy Y. Single paravertebral injection for acute thoracic herpes zoster: a randomized controlled trial. Pain Pract 2015; 15: 229-35. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12179
  103. Stepanovic A, Kolsek M, Kersnik J, Erculj V. Prevention of post-herpetic neuralgia using transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2015; 127: 369-74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-014-0669-3
  104. Lee EG, Lee HJ, Hyun DJ, Min K, Kim DH, Yoon MS. Efficacy of low dose gabapentin in acute herpes zoster for preventing postherpetic neuralgia: a prospective controlled study. Dermatol Ther 2016; 29: 184-90. https://doi.org/10.1111/dth.12331
  105. Cui JZ, Zhang XB, Zhu P, Zhao ZB, Geng ZS, Zhang YH, et al. Effect of repetitive intracutaneous injections with local anesthetics and steroids for acute thoracic herpes zoster and incidence of postherpetic neuralgia. Pain Med 2017; 18: 1566-72.
  106. Ni J, Wang X, Tang Y, Yang L, Zeng Y, Guo Y. Subcutaneous injection of triamcinolone and lidocaine to prevent postherpetic neuralgia. Pain Physician 2017; 20: 397-403.
  107. Cui JZ, Zhang JW, Yan F, Yang XN, Wang XL, Zhao ZB, et al. Effect of single intra-cutaneous injection for acute thoracic herpes zoster and incidence of postherpetic neuralgia. Pain Manag Nurs 2018; 19: 186-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmn.2017.09.002
  108. Bulilete O, Leiva A, Rullan M, Roca A, Llobera J; PHN Group. Efficacy of gabapentin for the prevention of postherpetic neuralgia in patients with acute herpes zoster: a double blind, randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2019; 14: e0217335. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217335
  109. Zheng S, Li X, Yang X, He L, Xue Y, Yang Z. Ultrasound-guided cervical nerve root block for the treatment of acute cervical herpes zoster: a randomized controlled clinical study. Pain Pract 2019; 19: 500-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12770
  110. Pasqualucci A, Pasqualucci V, Galla F, De Angelis V, Marzocchi V, Colussi R, et al. Prevention of post-herpetic neuralgia: acyclovir and prednisolone versus epidural local anesthetic and methylprednisolone. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000; 44: 910-8. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-6576.2000.440803.x
  111. Wood MJ, McKendrick MW, Freris MW, Jeal SC, Jones DA, Gilbert AM. Trough plasma acyclovir concentrations and safety of oral acyclovir, 800 mg five times daily for 7 days in elderly patients with herpes zoster. J Antimicrob Chemother 1994; 33: 1245-9. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/33.6.1245
  112. Clemmensen OJ, Andersen KE. ACTH versus prednisone and placebo in herpes zoster treatment. Clin Exp Dermatol 1984; 9: 557-63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2230.1984.tb00859.x
  113. Eaglstein WH, Katz R, Brown JA. The effects of early corticosteroid therapy on the skin eruption and pain of herpes zoster. JAMA 1970; 211: 1681-3. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1970.03170100043009
  114. Harding SP, Porter SM. Oral acyclovir in herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Curr Eye Res 1991; 10 Suppl: 177-82. https://doi.org/10.3109/02713689109020376
  115. Keczkes K, Basheer AM. Do corticosteroids prevent postherpetic neuralgia? Br J Dermatol 1980; 102: 551-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1980.tb07654.x
  116. Hugler P, Siebrecht P, Hoffmann K, Stucker M, Windeler J, Altmeyer P, et al. Prevention of postherpetic neuralgia with varicella-zoster hyperimmune globulin. Eur J Pain 2002; 6: 435-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-3801(02)00046-0
  117. Cui JZ, Zhang JW, Zhang Y, Ma ZL. [Efficacy of intracutaneous methylene blue injection for moderate to severe acute thoracic herpes zoster pain and prevention of postherpetic neuralgia in elderly patients]. Nan Fang Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao 2016; 36: 1377-81. Chinese.
  118. Manabe H, Dan K, Hirata K, Hori K, Shono S, Tateshi S, et al. Optimum pain relief with continuous epidural infusion of local anesthetics shortens the duration of zoster-associated pain. Clin J Pain 2004; 20: 302-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/00002508-200409000-00004
  119. Harding SP, Lipton JR, Wells JC, Campbell JA. Relief of acute pain in herpes zoster ophthalmicus by stellate ganglion block. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1986; 292: 1428.
  120. Wan C, Dong DS, Song T. High-voltage, long-duration pulsed radiofrequency on Gasserian ganglion improves acute/subacute zoster-related trigeminal neuralgia: a randomized, double-blinded, controlled trial. Pain Physician 2019; 22: 361-8.
  121. Arvin AM. Varicella-zoster virus. Clin Microbiol Rev 1996; 9: 361-81. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.9.3.361
  122. Harpaz R, Nagel MA, Schmader K, Tyring SK, Yawn BP. Roundtable on postherpetic neuralgia--what, why, how long, and what's next? Popul Health Manag 2012; 15: 385-90. https://doi.org/10.1089/pop.2012.1562
  123. Woolf CJ. A new strategy for the treatment of inflammatory pain. Prevention or elimination of central sensitization. Drugs 1994; 47 Suppl 5: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199400475-00003
  124. Riopelle JM, Naraghi M, Grush KP. Chronic neuralgia incidence following local anesthetic therapy for herpes zoster. Arch Dermatol 1984; 120: 747-50. https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1984.01650420057016
  125. Li Q, Chen N, Yang J, Zhou M, Zhou D, Zhang Q, et al. Antiviral treatment for preventing postherpetic neuralgia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (2): CD006866.
  126. Epstein E. Treatment of herpes zoster and postzoster neuralgia by subcutaneous injection of triamcinolone. Int J Dermatol 1981; 20: 65-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-4362.1981.tb05299.x
  127. Johansson A, Bennett GJ. Effect of local methylprednisolone on pain in a nerve injury model. A pilot study. Reg Anesth 1997; 22: 59-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1098-7339(06)80057-X
  128. Davies RG, Myles PS, Graham JM. A comparison of the analgesic efficacy and side-effects of paravertebral vs epidural blockade for thoracotomy--a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized trials. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96: 418-26. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/ael020
  129. Joshi GP, Bonnet F, Shah R, Wilkinson RC, Camu F, Fischer B, et al. A systematic review of randomized trials evaluating regional techniques for postthoracotomy analgesia. Anesth Analg 2008; 107: 1026-40. https://doi.org/10.1213/01.ane.0000333274.63501.ff
  130. Makharita MY, Amr YM. Effect of repeated paravertebral injections with local anesthetics and steroids on prevention of post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain Physician 2020; 23: 565-72.
  131. Stettler C, Wandel S, Allemann S, Kastrati A, Morice MC, Schomig A, et al. Outcomes associated with drug-eluting and bare-metal stents: a collaborative network meta-analysis. Lancet 2007; 370: 937-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61444-5
  132. Li T, Puhan MA, Vedula SS, Singh S, Dickersin K. Network meta-analysis-highly attractive but more methodological research is needed. BMC Med 2011; 9: 79. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-9-79