Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture (한국식생활문화학회지)

Korean Society of Food Culture (한국식생활문화학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Trends and Prospects of Microalgae used for Food

식품에 이용되는 미세조류와 이를 이용한 식품 연구개발 동향 및 전망

  • Kwak, Ho Seok (Department of Food Science and Engineering, Dongyang Mirae University) ;
  • Kim, Ji Soo (Department of Biotechnology, CHA University) ;
  • Lee, Ja Hyun (Department of Food Science and Engineering, Dongyang Mirae University) ;
  • Sung, Dong Eun (Department of Food Science and Engineering, Dongyang Mirae University)
  • 곽호석 (동양미래대학교 식품공학과) ;
  • 김지수 (차의과학대학교 바이오공학과) ;
  • 이자현 (동양미래대학교 식품공학과) ;
  • 성동은 (동양미래대학교 식품공학과)
  • Received : 2020.12.22
  • Accepted : 2021.01.21
  • Published : 2021.02.28
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Microalgae are unicellular microorganisms inhabiting various ecosystems of the world, including marine and freshwater systems and extreme environments. Only a few species have been actively used as food. Microalgae are attracting attention as a means of biological CO2 reduction because they play an important role in absorbing atmospheric CO2 through their rapid growth by photosynthesis in water. Besides, microalgae are considered to be an eco-friendly energy source because they can rapidly produce biomass containing a large quantum of lipids that can be converted into biodiesel. Several microalgae, such as Chlorella spp., Spirulina spp. and Haematococcus spp. have already been commercialized as functional health supplements because they contain diverse nutrients including proteins, vitamins, minerals, and functional substances such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), β-glucan, phycocyanin, astaxanthin, etc. Moreover, they have the potential to be used as food materials that can address the protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) which may occur in the future due to population growth. They can be added to various foods in the form of powder or liquid extract for enhancing the quality characteristics of the foods. In this review, we analyzed several microalgae which can be used as food additives and summarized their characteristics and functions that suggest the possibility of a role for microalgae as future food.

Keywords

References

  1. Aaronson S. 1986. A role for algae as human food in antiquity. Food and Foodways, 1(3):311-315 https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710.1986.9961891
  2. Al-Bulishi MSM, Changhu X, Tang QJ. 2015. Health aspects of astaxanthin: a review. Canad. J. Clin. Nutr., 3(2):71-78 https://doi.org/10.14206/canad.j.clin.nutr.2015.02.08
  3. An HJ, Seo SW, Sim KS, Kim JS, Kim EH, Lee MO, ParkHS, Han JG, Lee EH, Um JY, Hong SH, Kim HM. 2006.Antifatigue effect of Chlorella vulgaris in mice. Korean J.Food & Nutr., 19(2):169-175
  4. Apt KE, Behrens PW. 2002. Commercial developments in microalgal biotechnology. J. Phycol., 35(2):215-226 https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1529-8817.1999.3520215.x
  5. Arteburn LA, Oken HA, Hoffman JP, Bailey-Hall E, Cheng G, Rom D, Hamersley J, McCarthy D. 2007. Bioequivalence of docosahexaenoic acid from different algal oils in capsules and in DHA-fortified food. Lipids. 42(11):1011-1024 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-007-3098-5
  6. Batista AP, Niccolai A, Fradinho P, Fragoso S, Bursic I, Rodolfi L, Biondi N, Tredici MR, Sousa I, Raymund A. 2017. Microalgae biomass as an alternative ingredient in cookies: sensory, physical and chemical properties, antioxidant activity and in vitro digestibility. Algal Res., 26:161-171 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2017.07.017
  7. Ben-Amotz A. 1995. New mode of Dunaliella biotechnology: two-phase growth of β-carotene production. J. Appl. Physiol., 7(1):65-68
  8. Borowitzka MA. 1997. Microalgae for aquaculture: opportunities and constraints. J. Appl. Physiol. 9:393-401
  9. Borowitzka MA, Borowitzka LJ, Kessly K. 1990. Effects of salinity increase on carotenoid accumulation in the green alga Dunaliella salina. J. Appl. Phycol., 2(2):119-129
  10. Certik M, Shimizu S. 1999. Biosynthesis and regulation of microbial polyunsaturated fatty acid production. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 87(1):1-14 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-1723(99)80001-2
  11. Cherng JY, Shih MS. 2006. Improving glycogenesis in streptozocin(STZ) diabetic mice after administration of green algae Chlorella. Life Sci., 78(11):1181-1186 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2005.06.050
  12. Cho DH, Choi JW, Kang Z, Kim BH, Oh HM, Kim HS, Ramanan R. 2017. Microalgal diversity fosters stable biomass productivity in open ponds treating wastewater. Sci. Rep., 7(1):1-11 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-016-0028-x
  13. Cho EJ, Nam ES, Park SI. 2004a. Effect of Chlorella extract on quality characteristics of Yoghurt. Korean J. Food & Nutr., 17(1):1-7
  14. Cho EJ, Nam ES, Park SI. 2004b. Keeping quality and sensory property of drinkable Yoghurt added with Chlorella extract. Korean J. Food & Nutr., 17(2):128-137
  15. Cho H, Yang YH, Lee KJ, Cho YS, Chun HK, Song KB, Kim MR. 2005. Quality characteristics of low fat salad dressing with Spirulina during storage. Korean J. Food Preserv., 12(4):329-335
  16. Cho HS, Kim KH. 2015. Quality characteristics of Maejakgwas with Chlorella powder. J. Korean Soc. Food Cult., 30(5):667-673 https://doi.org/10.7318/KJFC/2015.30.5.667
  17. Cho HS, Kim KH. 2016. Effects of Chlorella powder on quality characteristics of Yukwa. J. Korean Soc. Food Cult., 31(2):178-187 https://doi.org/10.7318/KJFC/2016.31.2.178
  18. Choi YJ, Jo WS, Kim HJ, Nam BH, Kang EY, Oh SJ, Lee GA, Jeong MH. 2010. Anti-inflammatory effect of Chlorella ellipsoidea extracted from seawater by organic solvents. Korean J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 43(1):39-45 https://doi.org/10.5657/kfas.2010.43.1.039
  19. Chung NY, Choi SN. 2005. Quality characteristics of pound cake with Chlorella powder. Korean J. Food Cookery Sci., 21(5): 669-676
  20. Ciferri O. 1983. Spirulina, the edible microorganism. Microbiol. Rev., 47(4):551-578 https://doi.org/10.1128/MR.47.4.551-578.1983
  21. Crawford, M. 2000. Placental delivery of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acids: implication of the lipid nutrition of preterm infants. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 71(1):275-284 https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/71.1.275S
  22. Dillehay TD, Ramirez C, Pino M, Collins MB, Rossen J, PinoNavarro JD. 2008. Monte Verde: seaweed, food, medicine, and the peopling of South America. Science, 320(5877): 784-786 https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1156533
  23. Dragos N, Bercea V, Bica A, Druga B, Nicoara A, Coman C. 2010. Astaxanthin production from a new strain of Haematococcus pluvialis grown in batch culture. Ann. Rom. Soc. Cell Biol., 15(2):353-361
  24. El-Baz FK, Abdo SM, Hussein AMS. 2017. Microalgae Dunaliella salina for use as food supplement to improve pasta quality. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res., 46(2):45-51
  25. Fabregas J, Otero A, Dominguez A, Patino M. 2001. Growth rate of the microalga Tetraselmis suecica changes the biochemical composition of Artemia species. Mar. Biotechnol., 3(3):256-263 https://doi.org/10.1007/s101260000074
  26. Figueira FS, Crizel TM, Silva CR, Salas-Mellado MM. 2011. Pao sem gluten enriquecido com a microalga Spirulina platensis. Brazilian J. Food Technol., 14(4):308-316 https://doi.org/10.4260/BJFT2011140400037
  27. Fradique M, Batista AP, Nunes MC, Gouveia L, Bandarrac NM, Raymundo A. 2010. Incorporation of Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina maxima biomass in pasta products. Part 1: Preparation and evaluation. J. Sci. Food Agric., 90(10):1656-1664 https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3999
  28. Fuentes-Grunewald C, Garces E, Alacid E, Smpedro N, Rossi S, Camp J. 2012. Improvement of lipid production in the marine strains Alexandrium minutum and Heterosigma akashiwo by utilizing abiotic parameters. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 39(1):207-216 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10295-011-1016-6
  29. Ghys A, Bakkere E, Hornstra G, Hout M. 2002. Red blood cell and plasma phospholipid arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acid levels at birth and cognitive development at 4 years of age. Early Hum. Dev., 69:83-90 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3782(02)00067-1
  30. Ginzberg A, Cohen M, Sod-Moriah UA, Shany S, Rosenshtrauch A, Arad S. 2000. Chickens fed with biomass of the red microalga Porphyridium sp. have reduced blood cholesterol level and modified fatty acid composition in egg yolk. J. Appl. Phycol., 12:325-330 https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008102622276
  31. Gouveia L, Batista AP, Sousa I, Raymundo A, Bandarra NM. 2008a. Microalgae in novel food products. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., pp1-37
  32. Gouveia L, Coutinho C, Mendonca M, Batista AP, Sousa I, Bandarra NM, Raymundo A. 2008b. Functional biscuits with PUFA-ω3 from Isochrysis galbana. J. Sci. Food Agric., 88:891-896 https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.3166
  33. Han JG, Kang KK, Kim JK, Kim SH. 2002. Current state and view of Chlorella extract. Korean J. Food Sci. Technol., 35(2):64-69
  34. Harker M, Tsavalos AJ, Young AJ. 1996. Factors responsible for astaxanthin formation in the chlorophyte Haematococcus pluvialis. Bioresour. Technol., 55(3):207-214 https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-8524(95)00002-X
  35. Heo JY, Shin HJ, Oh DH, Cho SK, Yang CJ, Kong IK, Lee SS, Choi KS, Choi SH, Kim SC, Choi HY, Bae I. 2006. Quality properties of appenzeller cheese added with Chlorella. Korean J. Food Sci. Ani. Resour., 26(4):525-531
  36. Hossain AKMM, Brennan MA, Mason SL, Guo X, Zeng XA, Brennan CS. 2017. The effect of astaxanthin-rich microalgae "Haematococcus pluvialis" and wholemeal flours incorporation in improving the physical and functional properties of cookies. Foods, 6(8):57 https://doi.org/10.3390/foods6080057
  37. Hyun YH, Hwang YK, Lee YS. 2005. Quality characteristics of Sulgidduk with tapioca flour. Korean J. Food & Nutr., 18(2):103-108
  38. Jang MS, Park JE. 2006. Optimization of ingredient mixing ratio for preparation of Sulgidduk with saltwort (Salicornia herbacea L.). J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr., 35(5):641-648 https://doi.org/10.3746/JKFN.2006.35.5.641
  39. Joo JH, Seok JH, Hong IK, Kim NY, Choi EM. 2016. Inhibitory effects of Dunaliella salina extracts on thermallyinduced skin aging. J. Korean Soc. Cosmet. Sci., 42(1):57-64
  40. Jung HS, Noh KH, Go MK, Song YS. 1999. Effect of leek (Allium tuberosum) powder on physicochemical and sensory characteristics of breads. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr., 28(1):113-117
  41. Kang MS, Chae HJ, Sim SJ. 2006. Chlorella as a functional biomaterial. Korean J. Biotechnol. Bioeng., 19(1):1-11
  42. Kim BW, Yoon SJ, Jang MS. 2005. Effect of addition Baekbokryung (white Poria cocos wolf) powder on the quality characteristics of Sulgidduk. Korean J. Food Cookery Sci., 21: 895-907
  43. Kim HJ, Shim EK, Kim HR, Kim MR 2010. Antioxidant activities of Riceyeotgangjung with added Spirulina powder. J. Korean Soc. Food Cult., 25(6):795-800
  44. Kim JS. 2004. Preparation of Chlorella drinks and its quality characteristics. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr., 17(4):382-387.
  45. Kim JYH, Kwak HS, Sung YJ, Choi HI, Hong ME, Lim HS, Lee JH, Lee SY, Sim SJ. 2016a. Microfluidic high-throughput selection of microalgal strains with superior photosynthetic productivity using competitive phototaxis. Sci. Rep., 6:21155 https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21155
  46. Kim KB, Lee JJ, Heo JA, Cho DH, Kim HS, Kim KN, Kim SY, Ahn KJ, An IS, An S, Bae S. 2014. The extract of Chlorella vulgaris exerts protective effects against ultraviolet B radiation-induced damages in human dermal fibroblasts. Kor. J. Aesthet. Cosmetol., 12(4):479-486
  47. Kim KJ, Chung HC. 2010. Quality characteristics of yellow layer cake containing different amounts of Chlorella powder. Korean J. Food Cookery Sci., 26(6):860-865
  48. Kim MJ, Shim CK, Kim YK, Hong SJ, Park JH, Han EJ, Ji HJ, Lee SB, Kim SC. 2015a. Effect of Chlorella sp. on improving antioxidant activities and growth promotion in organic soybean sprout cultivation. Korean J. Org. Agric., 23(4):939-950 https://doi.org/10.11625/KJOA.2015.23.4.939
  49. Kim MJ, Shim CK, Kim YK, Hong SJ, Park JH, Han EJ, Kim SC. 2016b. Effect of fresh Chlorella powder on improving qualities and storage condition of organic soybean Tofu. Korean J. Food Preserv., 23(6):832-838 https://doi.org/10.11002/KJFP.2016.23.6.832
  50. Kim MY, Jeong YK, Son CW, Jhon ES, Kim MR. 2009a. Quality characteristics and antioxidantive activities of Spirulina added Korean rice cake (Garaeduk) during storage. Korean J. Food Preserv., 16(1):8-16
  51. Kim MY, Kim JM, Lee YJ, Heo OS, Kim MR. 2009b. Optimization of Spirulina added Korean rice cake (Garaeduk) using response surface methodology. J. East Asian Soc. Diet. Life, 19(1):38-44
  52. Kim SC, Kim HS, Cho YU, Ryu JS, Cho SJ. 2015b. Development of strain-specific SCAR marker for selection of Pleurotus eryngii strains with higher β-glucan. J. Mushrooms, 13(1):79-83 https://doi.org/10.14480/JM.2015.13.1.79
  53. Kim SS, Park MK, Oh NS, Kim DC, Han MS, In MJ. 2003. Studies on quality characteristics and shelf-life of Chlorella soybean curd (Tofu). J. Korean Soc. Agric. Chem. Biotechnol., 46(1):12-15
  54. Kim YH, Hwang YK, Kim YY, Ko SM, Hwang JM, Lee YW. 2002. Effect of Chlorella growth factor on the proliferation of human skin keratinocyte. J. Biomed. Lab. Sci., 8(4):229-234
  55. Kim ZH, Park H, Lee CG. 2016c. Seasonal assessment of biomass and fatty acid productivity by Tetraselmis sp. in the ocean using semi-permeable membrane photobioreactors. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 26(6):1098-1102 https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.1601.01031
  56. Kose A, Ozen MO, Elibol M, Oncel SS. 2017. Investigation of in vitro digestibility of dietary microalga Chlorella vulgaris and cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis as a nutritional supplement. 3 Biotech., 7(3):170 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-017-0832-4
  57. Koyande AK, Chew KW, Rambabu K, Tao Y, Chu D., Show P. 2019. Microalgae: A potential alternative to health supplementation for humans. Food Sci. Hum. Well., 8(1):16-24 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fshw.2019.03.001
  58. Kumoro AC, Johnny D, Alfilovita D. 2016. Incorporation of microalgae and seaweed in instant wheat noodles manufacturing: nutrition and culinary properties study. Int. Food Res. J., 23(2):715-722
  59. Kwak HS, Kim JYH, Woo HM, Jin ES, Min BK, Sim SJ. 2016. Synergistic effect of multiple stress conditions for improving microalgal lipid production. Algal Res., 19:215-224 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.09.003
  60. Lee YJ, Son CW, Kim HJ, Lee JH, Kim MR. 2009. Quality characteristics of raw and cooked Spirulina added noodles during storage. Korean J. Food Preserv., 16(1):23-32
  61. Lee YJ, Yeon BR, Kim MH, Kim MR. 2008. Quality characteristics and antioxidant activity of raw and cooked noodles amended with Spirulina. J. East Asian Soc. Diet. Life, 18(6): 1081-1088
  62. Lers A, Levy H, Zamir A. 1991. Co-regulation of a gene homologous to early light-induced genes in higher plants and beta-carotene biosynthesis in the alga Dunaliella bardawil. J. Biol. Chem., 266(21):13698-13705 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9258(18)92755-9
  63. Liu CP, Lin LP. 2001. Ultrastructural study and lipid formation of Isochrysis sp. CCMP1324. Bot. Bull. Acad. Sin., 42:207-214
  64. Liu X., Osawa T. 2007. Cis astaxanthin and especially 9-cis astaxanthin exhibits a higher antioxidant activity in vitro compared to the all-trans isomer. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 357(1):187-193 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.03.120
  65. Madeira MS, Cardoso C, Lopes PA, Coelho D, Afonso C, Bandarra NM, Prates JAM. 2017. Microalgae as feed ingredients for livestock production and meat quality: a review. Livest. Sci., 205:111-121 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2017.09.020
  66. Mahajan G, Kamat M. 1995. γ-Linolenic acid production from Spirulina platensis. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 43(3):466-469 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00218450
  67. Miroslav G, Zorica S. 2008. Microalgae and cyanobacteria: food for thought. J. Phycol., 44(2):260-268 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00469.x
  68. Muller-Feuga A. 2000. The role of microalgae in aquaculture: situation and trends. J. Appl. Phycol., 12:527-534 https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008106304417
  69. Naas KE, Naess T, Harboe T. 1992. Enhanced first feeding of halibut larvae (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L) in green water. Aquac., 105(2):143-156 https://doi.org/10.1016/0044-8486(92)90126-6
  70. Niccolai A, Zittelli GC, Rodolfi L, Biondi N, Tredici MR. 2019. Microalgae of interest as food source: Biochemical composition and digestibility. Algal Res., 42:101617 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2019.101617
  71. Oh HL, Yang KH, Park SY, Yoon JH, Shim EK, Lee KJ, Kim MR. 2012. Quality characteristics and antioxidative activities of acorn starch Mook added Spirulina and soy protein. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr., 41(11):1515-1520 https://doi.org/10.3746/JKFN.2012.41.11.1515
  72. Otles S, Pire R. 2001. Fatty acid composition of Chlorella and Spirulina microalgae species. J. AOAC Int., 84(6):1708-1714 https://doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/84.6.1708
  73. Park MK, Lee JM, Park CH, In MJ. 2002. Quality characteristics of Sulgidduk containing Chlorella powder. J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr., 31(2): 225-229 https://doi.org/10.3746/JKFN.2002.31.2.225
  74. Park SI. 2003. Effect of Chlorella growth factor on quality of bread. J. Korean Soc. Food Cult., 18(4):356-364
  75. Park SI, Cho EJ. 2004. Quality characteristics of noodle added with Chlorella extract. Korean J. Food & Nutr., 17(2):120-127
  76. Park YJ, Chun HS, Kim SS, Lee JM, Kim KH. 2000. Effect of nitrogen gas packing and γ-oryzanol treatment on the shelf of Yukwa (Korean traditional snack). Korean J. Food Sci. Technol., 32(2):317-322
  77. Perez-Lopez P, Gonzalez-Garcia S, Je?ryes C, Agathos SN, McHugh E, Walsh D, Murray P, Moane S, Feijoo G, Moreira MT. 2014. Life-cycle assessment of the production of the red antioxidant carotenoid astaxanthin by microalgae: from lab to pilot scale. J. Clea. Prod., 64:332-344 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.011
  78. Pham HM, Kwak HS, Hong ME, Lee JW, Chang WS, Sim SJ. 2017. Development of an X-shape airlift photobioreactor for increasing algal biomass and biodiesel production. Bioresour. Technol., 239:211-218 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.05.030
  79. Pulz O, Gross W. 2004. Valuable products from biotechnology of microalgae. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 65(6):635-648 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-004-1647-x
  80. Ranga RA, Harshvardhan RA, Aradhya SM. 2010. Antibacterial properties of Spirulina platensis, Haematococcus pluvialis, Botryococcus braunii microalgal extracts. Curr. Trends Biotechnolo. Pharm., 4(3):809-819
  81. Ryu BM, Jeon YJ. 2018. Development of functional food products with natural materials derived from marine resources. Food Sci. Ind., 51(2):157-164 https://doi.org/10.23093/FSI.2018.51.2.157
  82. Sahin-Cebeci OI. 2020. Functional and sensorial properties of cookies enriched with Spirulina and Dunaliella biomass. J. Food Sci. Technol., 57(10):3639-3656 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04396-4
  83. Shibata S, Natori Y, Nishihara T, Tomisaka K, Matsumoto K, Sansawa H, Nguyen VC. 2003. Antioxidant and anti-cataract effects of Chlorella on rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol., 49(5):334-339 https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.49.334
  84. Shim EK, Kim HJ, Kim HR, Kim MR. 2010. Quality characteristics of Riceyeotgangjung with added Spirulina powder. J. East Asian Soc. Diet. Life., 20(6):888-895
  85. Shimamatsu H. 2004. Mass production of Spirulina, an edible microalga. Hydrobiologia., 512:39-44 https://doi.org/10.1023/B:HYDR.0000020364.23796.04
  86. Son CW, Kim HJ, Lee YJ, Kim MR. 2008. Quality characteristics and antioxidant activity of Black Sesame Dasik added Spirulina. J. Korean Soc. Diet. Cult., 23(6):755-760
  87. Spolaore P, Joannis-Cassan, C, Duran E, Isambert A. 2006. Commercial applications of Microalgae. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 101(2):87-96 https://doi.org/10.1263/jbb.101.87
  88. Sung YM, Cho JR, Oh NS, Kim DC, In MJ. 2005. Preparation and quality characteristics of curd Yogurt added with Chlorella. J. Korean Soc. Appl. Biol. Chem., 48(1):60-64
  89. Tang G. 2010. Bioconversion of dietary provitamin A carotenoids to vitamin A in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 91(5):1468S-1473S https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2010.28674G
  90. Torres-Tiji Y, Fields FJ, Mayfield SP. 2020. Microalgae as a future food source. Biotechnol. Adv., 41:107536 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107536
  91. Turner NJ. 2003. The ethnobotany of edible seaweed (Porphyra abbottae and related species; Rhodophyta: Bangiales) and its use by first nations on the Pacific coast of Canada. Can. J. Bot., 81(4):283-293 https://doi.org/10.1139/b03-029
  92. Vaz BS, Moreira JB, de Morais MG, Costa JAV. 2016. Microalgae as a new source of bioactive compounds in food supplements. Curr. Opin. Food Sci., 7(1):73-77 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2015.12.006
  93. Wang SB, Hu Q, Sommerfeld M, Chen F. 2004. Cell wall proteomics of the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis (Chlorophyceae). Proteomics, 4(3):692-708 https://doi.org/10.1002/pmic.200300634
  94. Weiss M, Bental M, Pick U. 1991. Hydrolysis of polyphosphates and permeability change in response to osmotic shocks in cells of the halotolerant alga Dunaliella. Plant Physiol., 97(3):1241-1248 https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.97.3.1241
  95. Wells ML, Potin P, Craigie JS, Raven JA, Merchant SS, Helliwell KE, Smith AG, Camire ME, Brawley SH. 2016. Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. J. Appl. Phycol., 29(2):949-982 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-016-0974-5
  96. Wroble M, Mash C, Williams L, McCall RB. 2002. Should long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids be added to infant formula to promote development?. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol., 23(1):99-112 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-3973(01)00104-6
  97. Yamaguchi K. 1997. Recent advances in microalgal bioscience in Japan, with special reference to utilization of biomass and metabolites: a review. J. Appl. Phycol., 8:487-502 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02186327
  98. Yang SJ, Hur SB. 2012. Selection of Isochrysis and Pavlova species for mass culture in high temperature season. J. Korean Fish. Aquat. Sci., 45(4):343-350
  99. Yang Y, Kim B, Lee JY. 2013. Astaxanthin structure, metabolism, and health benefits. J. Hum. Nutr. Food Sci. 1:1003
  100. Yoo KM, Kim SH, Chang JH, Hwang IK. 2005. Quality characteristics of Sulgidduk containing different levels of dandelion (Tarazacum officinale) leaves and roots powder. Korean J. Food Cookery Sci., 21(1):110-116