Journal of Dental Anesthesia and Pain Medicine

The Korean Dental Society of Anesthsiology (대한치과마취과학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Adverse effects following dental local anesthesia: a literature review

  • Ho, Jean-Pierre T.F. (Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Amsterdam University Medical Center) ;
  • van Riet, Tom C.T. (Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Amsterdam University Medical Center) ;
  • Afrian, Youssef (Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Amsterdam University Medical Center) ;
  • Chin Jen Sem, Kevin T.H. (Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Amsterdam University Medical Center) ;
  • Spijker, Rene (Medical Library, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam) ;
  • de Lange, Jan (Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Amsterdam University Medical Center) ;
  • Lindeboom, Jerome A. (Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Amsterdam University Medical Center)
  • Received : 2021.08.06
  • Accepted : 2021.10.05
  • Published : 2021.12.01
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

Local anesthesia is indispensable in dentistry. Worldwide, millions of local anesthetic injections are administered annually, and are generally considered safe invasive procedures. However, adverse effects are possible, of which dentists should be aware of. This scoping review aimed to provide an extensive overview of the reported literature on the adverse effects of dental local anesthesia. The types of papers, what is reported, and how they are reported were reviewed. Additionally, the incidence and duration of adverse effects and factors influencing their occurrence were also reviewed. An electronic search for relevant articles was performed in PubMed and Embase databases from inception to January 2, 2020. The titles and abstracts were independently screened by two reviewers. The analysis was narrative, and no meta-analysis was performed. This study included 78 articles. Ocular and neurological adverse effects, allergies, hematomas, needle breakage, tissue necrosis, blanching, jaw ankylosis, osteomyelitis, and isolated atrial fibrillation have been described. Multiple adverse effects of dental local anesthesia have been reported in the literature. The results were heterogeneous, and detailed descriptions of the related procedures were lacking. Vital information concerning adverse effects, such as the dosage or type of anesthetic solution, or the type of needle used, was frequently missing. Therefore, high-quality research on this topic is needed. Finally, the adverse effects that are rarely encountered in real-world general practice are overrepresented in the literature.

Keywords

References

  1. Malamed SF. Allergy and toxic reactions to local anesthetics. Dent Today 2003; 22: 114-6, 118-21.
  2. Fink BR. Leaves and needles: the introduction of surgical local anesthesia. Bull Anesth Hist 2001; 19: 7-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1522-8649(01)50022-0
  3. Redman M. Cocaine: what is the Crack? a brief history of the use of cocaine as an anesthetic. Anesth Pain Med 2011; 1: 95-7. https://doi.org/10.5812/kowsar.22287523.1890
  4. Hall M. "Coca koller". The beginning of local anesthesia. Anesth Prog 1972; 19: 65-7.
  5. Lopez-Valverde A, de Vicente J, Martinez-Dominguez L, de Diego RG. Local anaesthesia through the action of cocaine, the oral mucosa and the Vienna group. Br Dent J 2014; 217: 41-3. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2014.546
  6. Singh P. An emphasis on the wide usage and important role of local anesthesia in dentistry: a strategic review. Dent Res J 2012; 9: 127-32. https://doi.org/10.4103/1735-3327.95224
  7. Lopez-Valverde A, De Vicente J, Cutando A. The surgeons Halsted and Hall, cocaine and the discovery of dental anaesthesia by nerve blocking. Br Dent J 2011; 211: 485-7. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2011.961
  8. Watt G. Hydrochlorate of Cocaine. Am J Dent Sci 1886; 19: 422-5.
  9. Tobe M, Suto T, Saito S. The history and progress of local anesthesia: multiple approaches to elongate the action. J Anesth 2018; 32: 632-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00540-018-2514-8
  10. Lieblich S. Providing anesthesia in the oral and maxillofacial surgery office: a look back, Where we are now and a look ahead. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2018; 76: 917-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2018.01.026
  11. Grzybowski A. Cocaine and the eye: a historical overview. Ophthalmologica 2008; 222: 296-301. https://doi.org/10.1159/000140625
  12. Heavner JE. Local anesthetics. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2007; 20: 336-42. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACO.0b013e3281c10a08
  13. Covino BG. Physiology and pharmacology of local anesthetic agents. Anesth Prog 1981; 28: 98-104.
  14. Shandler L. Mechanism of action of local anesthetis. J Am Dent Soc Anesthesiol 1965; 12: 62-6.
  15. Becker DE, Reed KL. Local anesthetics: review of pharmacological considerations. Anesth Prog 2012; 59: 90-101; quiz 102-3. https://doi.org/10.2344/0003-3006-59.2.90
  16. Giovannitti JA Jr, Rosenberg MB, Phero JC. Pharmacology of local anesthetics used in oral surgery. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 2013;25:453-65, vi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coms.2013.03.003
  17. Golembiewski J. Local anesthetics. J Perianesth Nurs 2013; 28: 409-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jopan.2013.09.001
  18. Haas DA. An update on local anesthetics in dentistry. J Can Dent Assoc 2002; 68: 546-51.
  19. Finder RL, Moore PA. Adverse drug reactions to local anesthesia. Dent Clin North Am 2002; 46: 747-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-8532(02)00018-6
  20. Smith MH, Lung KE. Nerve injuries after dental injection: a review of the literature. J Can Dent Assoc 2006; 72: 559-64.
  21. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG; PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med 2009; 6: e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
  22. Ouzzani M, Hammady H, Fedorowicz Z, Elmagarmid A. Rayyan-a web and mobile app for systematic reviews. Syst Rev 2016; 5: 210. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-016-0384-4
  23. Dogan EA, Dora B. Transient partial ophthalmoplegia and Horner's syndrome after intraoral local anesthesia. J Clin Neurosci 2005; 12: 696-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2004.08.029
  24. Blaxter PL, Britten MJ. Transient amaurosis after mandibular nerve block. Br Med J 1967; 1: 681. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5541.681
  25. Choi EH, Seo JY, Jung BY, Park W. Diplopia after inferior alveolar nerve block anesthesia: report of 2 cases and literature review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2009; 107: e21-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tripleo.2009.02.009
  26. Goldenberg AS. Diplopia resulting from a mandibular injection. J Endod 1983; 9: 261-2. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0099-2399(86)80026-7
  27. Kini YK, Kharkar VR, Kini AY. Transient diplopia with ipsilateral abducent nerve palsy and ptosis following a maxillary local anesthetic injection: a case report and review of literature. Oral Maxillofac Surg 2012; 16: 373-5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10006-011-0304-7
  28. Magliocca KR, Kessel NC, Cortright GW. Transient diplopia following maxillary local anesthetic injection. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2006; 101: 730-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tripleo.2005.08.012
  29. Odabasi O, Sahin O, Polat ME. Transient amaurosis and diplopia after inferior alveolar nerve block. J Craniofac Surg 2017; 28: e632-e4. https://doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0000000000003675
  30. Seres L, Petho G, Peto Z, Peto T. A case of transient diplopia and ophthalmoplegia following dental anesthesia. Niger J Clin Pract 2019; 22: 1172-4.
  31. Steenen SA, Dubois L, Saeed P, de Lange J. Ophthalmologic complications after intraoral local anesthesia: case report and review of literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 2012; 113: e1-5.
  32. Chisci G, Chisci C, Chisci V, Chisci E. Ocular complications after posterior superior alveolar nerve block: a case of trochlear nerve palsy. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2013; 42: 1562-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2013.05.010
  33. Kronman JH, Kabani S. The neuronal basis for diplopia following local anesthetic injections. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1984; 58: 533-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(84)90073-2
  34. Wilkie GJ. Temporary uniocular blindness and ophthalmoplegia associated with a mandibular block injection. A case report. Aust Dent J 2000; 45: 131-3. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1834-7819.2000.tb00253.x
  35. Hyams SW. Oculomotor palsy following dental anesthesia. Arch Ophthalmol 1976; 94: 1281-2. https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.1976.03910040153004
  36. Goldenberg AS. Transient diplopia from a posterior alveolar injection. J Endod 1990; 16: 550-1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0099-2399(07)80220-2
  37. Pandey R, Dixit N, Dixit KK, Roy S, Gaba C. Amaurosis, an unusual complication secondary to inferior alveolar nerve anesthesia: a case report and literature review. J Endod 2018; 44: 1442-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joen.2018.05.005
  38. Verma DK, Rajan R, Prabhu S. Ipsilateral, isolated amaurosis after inferior alveolar nerve block: report of two rare cases. Oral Maxillofac Surg 2013; 17: 73-5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10006-012-0329-6
  39. Williams JV, Williams LR, Colbert SD, Revington PJ. Amaurosis, ophthalmoplegia, ptosis, mydriasis and periorbital blanching following inferior alveolar nerve anaesthesia. Oral Maxillofac Surg 2011; 15: 67-70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10006-010-0238-5
  40. Ngeow WC, Shim CK, Chai WL. Transient loss of power of accommodation in 1 eye following inferior alveolar nerve block: report of 2 cases. J Can Dent Assoc 2006; 72: 927-31.
  41. Uckan S, Cilasun U, Erkman O. Rare ocular and cutaneous complication of inferior alveolar nerve block. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2006; 64: 719-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2005.12.018
  42. Rishiraj B, Epstein JB, Fine D, Nabi S, Wade NK. Permanent vision loss in one eye following administration of local anesthesia for a dental extraction. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2005; 34: 220-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2004.04.010
  43. Penarrocha-Diago M, Sanchis-Bielsa JM. Ophthalmologic complications after intraoral local anesthesia with articaine. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2000; 90: 21-4. https://doi.org/10.1067/moe.2000.107506
  44. Prakasm M, Managutti A, Dolas RS, Agrawal MG. Temporary pupillary dilatation and ptosis: complications of PSA nerve block: a case report and review of literature. J Maxillofac Oral Surg 2009; 8: 181-3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12663-009-0044-5
  45. Zhang Q, Li Z, Zhao S. Difficulty in closing eyelid after local upper dental infiltration anaesthesia with articaine: case report. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2016; 54: 713-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2015.09.020
  46. Hillerup S, Jensen R. Nerve injury caused by mandibular block analgesia. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2006; 35: 437-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2005.10.004
  47. Garisto GA, Gaffen AS, Lawrence HP, Tenenbaum HC, Haas DA. Occurrence of paresthesia after dental local anesthetic administration in the United States. J Am Dent Assoc 2010; 141: 836-44. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2010.0281
  48. Kingon A, Sambrook P, Goss A. Higher concentration local anaesthetics causing prolonged anaesthesia. Do they? a literature review and case reports. Aust Dent J 2011; 56: 348-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1834-7819.2011.01358.x
  49. Shenkman Z, Findler M, Lossos A, Barak S, Katz J. Permanent neurologic deficit after inferior alveolar nerve block: a case report. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1996; 25: 381-2. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0901-5027(06)80037-8
  50. Krafft TC, Hickel R. Clinical investigation into the incidence of direct damage to the lingual nerve caused by local anaesthesia. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 1994; 22: 294-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1010-5182(05)80079-4
  51. Pogrel MA, Thamby S. Permanent nerve involvement resulting from inferior alveolar nerve blocks. J Am Dent Assoc 2000; 131: 901-7. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2000.0308
  52. Sambrook PJ, Goss AN. Severe adverse reactions to dental local anaesthetics: prolonged mandibular and lingual nerve anaesthesia. Aust Dent J 2011; 56: 154-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1834-7819.2011.01317.x
  53. Pogrel MA, Bryan J, Regezi J. Nerve damage associated with inferior alveolar nerve blocks. J Am Dent Assoc 1995; 126: 1150-5. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.1995.0336
  54. Moorthy A, Stassen LF. The occurrence of paraesthesia of the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve after dental local anaesthetic use: a case report. J Ir Dent Assoc 2015; 61: 34-5.
  55. Blair NF, Parratt JD, Garsia R, Brazier DH, Cremer PD. Inflammatory trigeminal nerve and tract lesions associated with inferior alveolar nerve anaesthesia. J Clin Neurosci 2013; 20: 1608-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jocn.2012.10.027
  56. Tiwari IB, Keane T. Hemifacial palsy after inferior dental block for dental treatment. Br Med J 1970; 1: 798. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.5699.798
  57. Tzermpos FH, Cocos A, Kleftogiannis M, Zarakas M, Iatrou I. Transient delayed facial nerve palsy after inferior alveolar nerve block anesthesia. Anesth Prog 2012; 59: 22-7. https://doi.org/10.2344/11-03.1
  58. Cakarer S, Can T, Cankaya B, Erdem MA, Yazici S, Ayintap E, et al. Peripheral facial nerve paralysis after upper third molar extraction. J Craniofac Surg 2010; 21: 1825-7. https://doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0b013e3181f43dcf
  59. Baart JA, van Diermen DE, van Eijden TM. Transient paresis after mandibular block anaesthesia. Ned Tijdschr Tandheelkd 2006; 113: 418-20.
  60. Dormer BJ, Barker BC. A rare local anesthetic misadventure. Case report and anatomic considerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1976; 41: 300-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(76)90142-0
  61. Huang RY, Chen YJ, Fang WH, Mau LP, Shieh YS. Concomitant horner and harlequin syndromes after inferior alveolar nerve block anesthesia. J Endod 2013; 39: 1654-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joen.2013.09.006
  62. Sanchis JM, Penarrocha M. Uvular paralysis after dental anesthesia. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2002; 60: 1369-71. https://doi.org/10.1053/joms.2002.35751
  63. Wellins SL. Hypersensitivity to lidocaine hydrochloride. Report of a case. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1969; 28: 761-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(69)90425-3
  64. Campbell JR, Maestrello CL, Campbell RL. Allergic response to metabisulfite in lidocaine anesthetic solution. Anesth Prog 2001; 48: 21-6.
  65. Curley RK, Macfarlane AW, King CM. Contact sensitivity to the amide anesthetics lidocaine, prilocaine, and mepivacaine. Case report and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol 1986; 122: 924-6. https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1986.01660200096024
  66. Milam SB, Giovannitti JA, Bright D. Hypersensitivity to amide local anesthetics? Report of a case. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1983; 56: 593-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(83)90074-9
  67. El-Qutob D, Morales C, Pelaez A. Allergic reaction caused by articaine. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2005; 33: 115-6. https://doi.org/10.1157/13072924
  68. He HX, Feng L, Liu HC. Allergic reaction in the use of primacaine adrenaline. Postepy Dermatol Alergol 2015; 32: 134-6.
  69. Malanin K, Kalimo K. Hypersensitivity to the local anesthetic articaine hydrochloride. Anesth Prog 1995; 42: 144-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3006(96)00006-8
  70. Bina B, Hersh EV, Hilario M, Alvarez K, McLaughlin B. True allergy to amide local anesthetics: a review and case presentation. Anesth Prog 2018; 65: 119-23. https://doi.org/10.2344/anpr-65-03-06
  71. Ross NM. Serum-type allergic reactions to local anesthetic injections-report of two cases. Anesth Prog 1966; 13: 139-40.
  72. Schwartz HJ, Sher TH. Bisulfite sensitivity manifesting as allergy to local dental anesthesia. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1985; 75: 525-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-6749(85)80027-0
  73. Bajkin BV, Todorovic LM. Safety of local anaesthesia in dental patients taking oral anticoagulants: is it still controversial? Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2012; 50: 65-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2010.11.002
  74. Dougall A, Apperley O, Smith G, Madden L, Parkinson L, Daly B. Safety of buccal infiltration local anaesthesia for dental procedures. Haemophilia 2019; 25: 270-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/hae.13695
  75. Brodsky CD, Dower JS, Jr. Middle ear problems after a Gow-Gates injection. J Am Dent Assoc 2001; 132: 1420-4. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2001.0058
  76. Srisurang S, Narit L, Prisana P. Clinical efficacy of lidocaine, mepivacaine, and articaine for local infiltration. J Investig Clin Dent 2011; 2: 23-8. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2041-1626.2010.00035.x
  77. Pogrel MA. Broken local anesthetic needles: a case series of 16 patients, with recommendations. J Am Dent Assoc 2009; 140: 1517-22. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2009.0103
  78. Zijderveld SA, Dubois L. Needle breakage during local anaesthesia. Ned Tijdschr Tandheelkd 2018; 125: 587-90. https://doi.org/10.5177/ntvt.2018.11.18185
  79. Rahman N, Clarke M, Stassen LF. Case report: management of broken dental needles in practice. J Ir Dent Assoc 2013; 59: 241-5.
  80. Woodmansey KF, White RK, He J. Osteonecrosis related to intraosseous anesthesia: report of a case. J Endod 2009; 35: 288-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joen.2008.11.002
  81. Pattni N. Superficial skin necrosis and neurological complications following administration of local anaesthetic: a case report. Aust Dent J 2013; 58: 522-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/adj.12120
  82. Webber B, Orlansky H, Lipton C, Stevens M. Complications of an intra-arterial injection from an inferior alveolar nerve block. J Am Dent Assoc 2001; 132: 1702-4. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2001.0123
  83. Scott JK, Moxham BJ, Downie IP. Upper lip blanching and diplopia associated with local anaesthesia of the inferior alveolar nerve. Br Dent J 2007; 202: 32-3. https://doi.org/10.1038/bdj.2006.114
  84. Luchetti W, Cohen RB, Hahn GV, Rocke DM, Helpin M, Zasloff M, et al. Severe restriction in jaw movement after routine injection of local anesthetic in patients who have fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 1996; 81: 21-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1079-2104(96)80141-7
  85. Barnard JD. Osteomyelitis of the jaws as a sequel to dental local anaesthetic injections. Br J Oral Surg 1976; 13: 264-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/0007-117X(76)90054-8
  86. Hagai A, Diav-Citrin O, Shechtman S, Ornoy A. Pregnancy outcome after in utero exposure to local anesthetics as part of dental treatment: A prospective comparative cohort study. J Am Dent Assoc 2015; 146: 572-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2015.04.002
  87. Manani G, Facco E, Casiglia E, Cancian M, Zanette G. Isolated atrial fibrillation (IAF) after local anaesthesia with epinephrine in an anxious dental patient. Br Dent J 2008; 205: 539-41. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2008.979
  88. Martinez-Rodriguez N, Barona-Dorado C, Martin-Ares M, Cortes-Breton-Brinkman J, Martinez-Gonzalez JM. Evaluation of the anaesthetic properties and tolerance of 1:100,000 articaine versus 1:100,000 lidocaine. A comparative study in surgery of the lower third molar. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2012; 17: e345-51.
  89. Penarrocha-Oltra D, Ata-Ali J, Oltra-Moscardo MJ, Penarrocha-Diago M, Penarrocha M. Side effects and complications of intraosseous anesthesia and conventional oral anesthesia. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2012; 17: e430-4.
  90. Kammerer PW, Schneider D, Palarie V, Schiegnitz E, Daublander M. Comparison of anesthetic efficacy of 2 and 4 % articaine in inferior alveolar nerve block for tooth extraction-a double-blinded randomized clinical trial. Clin Oral Investig 2017; 21: 397-403. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-016-1804-5
  91. van der Bijl P, Victor AM. Adverse reactions associated with norepinephrine in dental local anesthesia. Anesth Prog 1992; 39: 87-9.
  92. Zsigmond EK, Eilderton TE. Abnormal reaction to procaine and succinylcholine in a patient with inherited atypical plasma cholinesterase: case report. Can Anaesth Soc J 1968; 15: 498-500. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03003735
  93. Brand HS, Bekker W, Baart JA. Complications of local anaesthesia. An observational study. Int J Dent Hyg 2009; 7: 270-2. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-5037.2009.00372.x
  94. Daublander M, Muller R, Lipp MD. The incidence of complications associated with local anesthesia in dentistry. Anesth Prog 1997; 44: 132-41.
  95. Kaufman E, Goharian S, Katz Y. Adverse reactions triggered by dental local anesthetics: a clinical survey. Anesth Prog 2000; 47: 134-8.
  96. Brand HS, te Veldhuis AH, Baart JA. Adverse effect of local anaesthetics. Ned Tijdschr Tandheelkd 2009; 116: 235-8.
  97. Boynes S, Riley A, Milbee S. Evaluating complications during intraoral administration of local anesthetics in a rural, portable special needs dental clinic. Spec Care Dentist 2014; 34: 241-5. https://doi.org/10.1111/scd.12059
  98. Lustig JP, Zusman SP. Immediate complications of local anesthetic administered to 1,007 consecutive patients. J Am Dent Assoc 1999; 130: 496-9. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.1999.0243
  99. Alamanos C, Raab P, Gamulescu A, Behr M. Ophthalmologic complications after administration of local anesthesia in dentistry: a systematic review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 2016; 121: e39-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oooo.2015.10.023
  100. Boynes SG, Echeverria Z, Abdulwahab M. Ocular complications associated with local anesthesia administration in dentistry. Dent Clin North Am 2010; 54: 677-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2010.06.008
  101. Hillerup S, Jensen RH, Ersboll BK. Trigeminal nerve injury associated with injection of local anesthetics: needle lesion or neurotoxicity? J Am Dent Assoc 2011; 142: 531-9. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2011.0223
  102. Harn SD, Durham TM. Incidence of lingual nerve trauma and postinjection complications in conventional mandibular block anesthesia. J Am Dent Assoc 1990; 121: 519-23. https://doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.1990.0198
  103. Campbell RL, Mercuri LG, Van Sickels J. Cervical sympathetic block following intraoral local anesthesia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1979; 47: 223-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(79)90144-0
  104. Ling KC. Peripheral facial nerve paralysis after local dental anesthesia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1985; 60: 23-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(85)90208-7
  105. Crean SJ, Powis A. Neurological complications of local anaesthetics in dentistry. Dent Update 1999; 26: 344-9. https://doi.org/10.12968/denu.1999.26.8.344
  106. Bernsen PL. Peripheral facial nerve paralysis after local upper dental anaesthesia. Eur Neurol 1993; 33: 90-1. https://doi.org/10.1159/000116910
  107. Canfield DW, Gage TW. A guideline to local anesthetic allergy testing. Anesth Prog 1987; 34: 157-63.
  108. Eggleston ST, Lush LW. Understanding allergic reactions to local anesthetics. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30: 851-7. https://doi.org/10.1177/106002809603000724
  109. Moore PA, Hersh EV. Local anesthetics: pharmacology and toxicity. Dent Clin North Am 2010; 54: 587-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2010.06.015
  110. Becker DE. Drug allergies and implications for dental practice. Anesth Prog 2013; 60: 188-97. https://doi.org/10.2344/0003-3006-60.4.188
  111. Lieberman P, Nicklas RA, Oppenheimer J, Kemp SF, Lang DM, Bernstein DI, et al. The diagnosis and management of anaphylaxis practice parameter: 2010 update. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 126: 477-80. e1-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.06.022
  112. Biocic J, Brajdic D, Peric B, Danic P, Salaric I, Macan D. A large cheek hematoma as a complication of local anesthesia: case report. Acta Stomatol Croat 2018; 52: 156-9. https://doi.org/10.15644/asc52/2/9
  113. Augello M, von Jackowski J, Gratz KW, Jacobsen C. Needle breakage during local anesthesia in the oral cavity--a retrospective of the last 50 years with guidelines for treatment and prevention. Clin Oral Investig 2011; 15: 3-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00784-010-0442-6
  114. Casey JT, Lupo JE, Jenkins HA. Retained dental needle migration across the skull base to the cochlea presenting as hearing loss. Otol Neurotol 2015; 36: e42-5. https://doi.org/10.1097/MAO.0000000000000690
  115. Neves RS, Neves IL, Giorgi DM, Grupi CJ, Cesar LA, Hueb W, et al. Effects of epinephrine in local dental anesthesia in patients with coronary artery disease. Arq Bras Cardiol 2007; 88: 545-51. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0066-782X2007000500008
  116. Rogers JG, Geho WB. Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. A survey of forty-two cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1979; 61: 909-14. https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-197961060-00019
  117. Cohen RB, Hahn GV, Tabas JA, Peeper J, Levitz CL, Sando A, et al. The natural history of heterotopic ossification in patients who have fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. A study of forty-four patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1993; 75: 215-9. https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-199302000-00008
  118. Steinberg BJ, Hilton IV, Iida H, Samelson R. Oral health and dental care during pregnancy. Dent Clin North Am 2013; 57: 195-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2013.01.002
  119. Committee Opinion No. 569: oral health care during pregnancy and through the lifespan. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 122: 417-22. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000433007.16843.10
  120. Loke YK, Price D, Herxheimer A; Cochrane Adverse Effects Methods Group. Systematic reviews of adverse effects: framework for a structured approach. BMC Med Res Methodol 2007; 7: 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-7-32