1. Introduction
Workplace behavior supports human resources’ management in higher education, which is increasingly competitive in a disruptive era, marked by the obligation to fulfill the abilities, skills, and competencies that must be possessed. Human resources, consisting of lecturers and non-lecturer staff, are identical with employees who strongly identify with their work organization, namely, a more motivated attitude, more loyal to their organization, and better performance (Zhu, 2008). Organizational identification also substantially impacts the various areas of desired employee behaviors, attitudes, and cognitions (He & Brown, 2013; Lee et al., 2015). These findings propel organizations into a “magic bullet” that seeks to increase employee engagement and individual performance even if, under certain circumstances, the magic bullet will incur some disadvantages (Galvin et al., 2015). The disadvantages can be in the form of low attendance rates, high employee turnover, and decreased organizational commitment, which is often referred to as workplace deviant behavior.
Workplace deviant behavior is a severe problem in companies (Appelbaum et al., 2006). Deviations are often recognized as reactions to individual stressors in organizations that frustrate them, such as financial, social, and working conditions (Lawrence & Robinson, 2007). Deviant behaviors within the organization that often occur are unethical deviations and sometimes develop even within the organization. Unethical behavior is common and special in work organizations (Umphress & Bingham, 2011).
Today, a vital business trend to reduce workplace deviant behavior is employees’ workplace spirituality (Shellenbarger, 2000). Although spirituality is a relatively new idea in the workplace, it is certainly not a new idea elsewhere in general on human experience (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). Workplace spirituality is not about religion but about employees who understand themselves as spiritual beings who need to nourish their souls in the office. Meanwhile, Lowery et al. (2014) suggested that spirituality appears to have an essential role in determining ethical beliefs about workplace behavior. Also, Ashmos and Duchon (2000) provided an accompanying definition of workplace spirituality as the most widely accepted and actually used conceptualization of the construct.
Further, workplace spirituality is a construction capable of reducing workplace deviant behavior so that employee performance will experience stability and even increase. This condition is especially true in higher education institutions, which are considered an education system with a critical mission to educate young people in a society. Workplace deviant behavior will cause harm as an event in the system, which consists of two kinds. First, such behavior reduces the system’s efficiency and efficacy and hinders the organization from achieving its goals and mission (Ferris et al., 2009). Second, the occurrence of workplace deviant behavior at the university causes a culture of danger and a virus that will spread to the work environment.
The existing phenomenon at Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, with AIPT accreditation “A”, is the need to increase employee discipline to support the process of achieving performance, both individual and organizational performance, to compete nationally and internationally. UMY imposes an employee obligation, namely permanent non-lecturer staff, to take online performance assessments. During the last six years, it is known that there were still approximately 20% of employees who did not participate and did not pass the online performance appraisal or Employee Performance Unit (SKP). Besides, the educational personnel’s discipline level, with the punctuality of attendance below 80%, was approximately 21.6% of the total number of permanent educational personnel. It is a problem as the form of workplace deviant behavior, does not make the university work environment conducive, and can affect other employees’ behaviors.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Workplace Deviant Behavior
When employees believe that their workplace is unfair, negative attitudes such as dissatisfaction, distrust, and stress emerge and develop, leading to workplace deviant behavior, affecting individuals and organizations. It is a form of employee considering workplace deviations, namely, as a consequence of unfair treatment or unfavorable social exchanges between employees and organizations as a form of social exchange theory’s application (Homans, 1961). Workplace deviant behavior is defined as voluntary behavior, which significantly violates organizational norms, thereby threatening the organization or its members’ welfare, or both (Robinson & Bennett, 1995, 2000). It can also be explained that workplace deviant behavior toward individuals is referred to as interpersonal deviations, and that toward organization is referred to as organizational deviations (Bennett & Robinson, 2000). Furthermore, workplace deviant behavior is organizational members’ behavior intentionally carried out to violate rules or ignore values contrary to the organization’s legitimate interests (Gruys & Sackett, 2003). Workplace deviant behavior can also be described as an intentional or deliberate desire to harm the organization (Omar et al., 2011).
2.2. Employee Performance
Liao et al. (2012) define employee performance as the standard for progress, redundancy, reward, punishment, review, and salary changes. It is a requirement in fulfilling employee needs. On the other hand, employee performance is the primary building block of an organization, so that aspects that use the basis of high performance must be critically examined by the organization to succeed management and organization (Abbas & Yaqoob, 2009). Employee performance symbolizes employees’ broad beliefs about behavior and their contribution to organizational achievement (Ahmad and Khurram (2011). Donni (2016) affirms that employee performance is a real behavior displayed by everyone as a work. The achievements produced by employees are in accordance with their roles in the organization. The heuristic framework for individual performance is proposed as individual work results, consisting of four dimensions: task performance, contextual performance, adaptive performance, and counterproductive work behavior. These four types of behavior can be considered to capture various behaviors that shape individual job performance in almost all jobs (Koopmans et al., 2014).
2.3. Workplace Spirituality
Workplace spirituality seems to get researchers’ attention when trying to define this construct (Van der Walt & De Klerk, 2014). Spirituality has a broader meaning than religion (Ajala, 2013; Akbar et al., 2018). Laabs (1995) argued that religion should not be included when defining spirituality. Workplace spirituality is still not defined in concrete words and is still in the developing stage (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003; Kolodinsky et al., 2007). Ashmos and Duchon (2000) elucidated that workplace spirituality is an understanding between individuals as spiritual beings whose souls need care at work with all the values within themselves, experiencing a sense of purpose and meaning in their work and a feeling of being connected to others and the community in which they work. Workplace spirituality aspects are briefly described as inner life (Mitroff & Denton, 1999), a sense of togetherness (Milliman et al., 2003), meaningful work (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000; Milliman et al., 2003), and work value (Ros et al., 1999).
2.4. Job Satisfaction
Organizational behavior scholars have conducted much research on job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is an employee’s orientation toward their job (Malka & Chatman, 2003). On the other hand, job satisfaction is the difference between the rewards expected and those received. The smaller the difference, the higher the satisfaction (Rai & Sinha, 2002). Job satisfaction is usually treated as a collection of feelings or affective responses related to job situations or “just how people feel about various aspects of their work” (Spector, 1997: 2). Van der Walt and De Klerk (2014) asserted that job satisfaction theory is generally divided into the dispositional theory and needs fulfillment theory. The dispositional theory has its roots in 1913, where job satisfaction was considered a personality phenomenon (Judge et al., 2001; Saari & Judge, 2004).
Meanwhile, needs fulfillment theory can be explained through Maslow’s hierarchy needs (1954), stating that a person strives to grow to the self-actualization growth stage. Self-actualization is the point in a person’s life at which he attains spiritual and emotional completeness. Besides, Minnesota’s practice of measuring job satisfaction is one output of “The Job Adaptation Project” at the University of Minnesota. In his regard, Weiss et al. (1967) stated that the theory underlying Minnesota Job Satisfaction assumes that job suitability depends on the correspondence between individual skills and reinforcements in the work environment.
3. Hypothesis Development
3.1. Workplace Spirituality and Workplace Deviant Behavior
The conditions of organizational cynicism that lead to workplace deviant behavior have been carried out by researchers (Jiang et al., 2017; Li & Chen, 2018), who suggested a possible link between workplace spirituality and workplace deviant behavior. Ahmad and Omar (2014) revealed that workplace spirituality could help employees measure workplace behavior because they can act as personal control. Thus, workplace spirituality could reduce workplace deviant behavior. Weitz et al. (2012) also found a negative relationship between workplace spirituality and bad organizational behavior. Moreover, the research results of Milliman et al. (2003) stated that the alignment of workplace spirituality includes, not only the alignment of values with the organization, but also the belief that the organization is ethical and has high integrity, so that workplace spirituality affects workplace deviant behavior, indicated by the condition of workplace spirituality that appears to be in direct conflict with workplace deviant behavior. The research results of Zhang (2018) found that workplace spirituality affected and was significant in deviant behavior. Furthermore, the research results of Septa (2018) and Siswanto (2018) stated that workplace spirituality influenced workplace deviant behavior. Also, qualitative research results (Sulaiman & Bhatti, 2013) uncovered that strong workplace spirituality would help generate positive behavior and reduce deviant behavior in an organization. Thus,
H1: Workplace spirituality significantly affects workplace deviant behavior
3.2. Workplace Spirituality and Job Satisfaction
The work dimension of workplace spirituality implies that employees’ jobs are perceived with joy and connect employees with the better (Duchon & Plowman, 2005). The relationship between workplace spirituality and job satisfaction has not been studied much (Duffy, 2006), although there is increasing interest in studying this relationship. Previous studies conducted by Milliman et al. (2003) on part-time employees revealed that there was a significant positive relationship between dimensions of spirituality and job satisfaction. Later, other studies have shown the same results in organizations, where workplace spirituality impacted employees who experienced greater job satisfaction (Altaf & Awan, 2011). Hence, employees whose spiritual needs are met tend to be more satisfied with their jobs. Thus, there is a positive influence between meaning in job satisfaction and job. The research results carried out by Zhang (2018), Hassan et al. (2016), Van der Walt and De Klerk (2014) discovered that workplace spirituality affected job satisfaction. The results of the same study were also conducted by Tasneem et al. (2017). Thus,
H2: Workplace spirituality significantly affects job satisfaction
3.3. Workplace Spirituality and Employee Performance
Research on workplace spirituality encouragement helps employees in the areas of creativity, process improvement, customer service, honesty and trust, personal fulfillment, and commitment, which ultimately lead to increased performance (Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002). There were suggestions that the organization could encourage spiritual experiences that could improve organizational performance and profitability by empowering employees to perform more tasks. It makes it easier for employees to become more committed in the workplace and helps them make improvements and organizational progress. Therefore, employees and managers need to join in implementing workplace spirituality because it helps employees contribute more to the organization as a whole (Rabindra et al., 2015). Soha et al. (2016) stated that workplace spirituality could be used as an individual factor in influencing organizational performance. Further, Albuquerque et al. (2014) detailed this relationship through research that performance can be built with workplace spirituality, namely, a sense of community and a sense of purpose and meaningful work. Thus,
H3: Workplace spirituality significantly affects employee performance
3.4. Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance
Previous researchers have investigated the effect of job satisfaction on employee performance. Lin et al. (2014) argued that limited research had been conducted to investigate the relationship between job satisfaction and performance. Contradictory findings might be due to different individual factors, which contributed to job satisfaction. However, previous researchers have reported that job satisfaction is an essential element and positively affects job performance (Rodsutti and Swierczek, 2002). Research carried out by Djastuti et al. (2019), Inuwa (2016), Jalal et al. (2019), Khan (2012), Destari et al. (2018), Maryati et al. (2019), Nguyen (2020), Paais and Pattiruhu (2020), Pancasila et al. (2020), Putri et al. (2019) confirmed that job satisfaction influenced employee performance. Thus,
H4: Job satisfaction significantly affects employee performance.
3.5. Workplace Deviant Behavior and Employee Performance
Workplace deviant behavior is the scope of all forms of behavior deliberately carried out by organization members, contrary to organizational goals (Piskin, 2014). Besides, deviant behavior is any deliberate individual activity, which can hinder the performance of oneself, others, or the organization (Chand & Chand, 2014). In other words, workplace deviant behavior can harm oneself, others, and organizational resources. Uncontrolled workplace deviant behavior will cause employee performance to degrade. Several research results exposed that workplace deviant behavior impacted individual/employee performance (Muafi, 2011). The same research results were also discovered by Yupono (2018). Thus,
H5: Workplace deviant behavior significantly affects employee performance
3.6. Job Satisfaction and Workplace Deviant Behavior
Judge et al. (2006) states that job satisfaction indicates that the power of employee satisfaction affects efficient output work conduct, such as increased extra role, imaginative, productive activities, and job performance, while decreasing workplace deviant behavior withdrawal, turnover and immoral activities in the workplace. The research result by Malhotra et al. (2017) affirmed that job satisfaction affects to counterproductive work behavior. The same research results were also discovered by Appelbaum et al. (2006) and Mahyarni (2019). Thus,
H6: Job Satisfaction significantly affects workplace deviant behavior
3.7. Job Satisfaction Mediates the Influence of Workplace Spirituality on Workplace Deviant Behavior
In the relationship between job satisfaction and the dimensions of workplace spirituality, spirituality will be mediated by influential job satisfaction. Spirituality is a universal phenomenon, where organizations acknowledge that people who work in their companies have an inner life, which grows because of the meaningful work for their lives and continuous employee job satisfaction. The research results by Crede et al. (2007) affirmed that job satisfaction plays a mediating role in the influence of the dimensions of workplace spirituality on workplace deviant behavior. The results are also supported by research conducted by Zhang (2018). Thus,
H7: Job satisfaction mediates the influence of workplace spirituality on workplace deviant behavior.
4. Research Methods
Research subjects/objects were permanent non-lecturer staff of Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta (UMY). The sample was permanent non-lecturer staff of Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta, with the sampling method used was purposive sampling. This study’s respondents were permanent non-lecturer staff meeting the criterion of working at least five years.
4.1. Data Collection
The type of data employed was primary data, where the primary data collection method was done by online (Google form) and offline (questionnaires distributed to employees). The questionnaire consisted of demographic questions and structured research questions. The number of questionnaires filled was 165 questionnaires by permanent non-lecturer staff who fit the criteria. Meanwhile, 143 questionnaires could be analyzed; the rest of the questionnaires were incomplete or flawed.
4.2. Measurement
Workplace deviant behavior (Y1) was measured by the dimension of workplace deviant behavior proposed by Robinson and Bennet (2000). Employee performance (Y2) was calculated by the individual performance dimensions, with five items developed by Koopmans et al. (2014). Workplace spirituality (X1) was determined by workplace spirituality dimensions using 14 items by Ashmos and Duchon (2000). Workplace deviant behavior (X2) was evaluated by the dimension of workplace deviant behavior, with eight items developed by Robinson and Bennet (2000). Job satisfaction (X3) was gauged by the dimensions of job satisfaction, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire of 20 items by Weiss et al. (1967). The measurement scale utilized a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree and 5 = strongly agree).
This study’s analytical tool utilized a structural equation model based on Partial Least Square (PLS). Smart PLS 3.0 software was used to help analyze the relationship between variables. PLS was employed for hypothesis testing, which was done partially (t-test), and the mediation test used the Sobel test. Meanwhile, descriptive analysis was employed to interpret the respondent’s data.
5. Results
Based on the results of the distributed questionnaire, the respondents’ demographic conditions, including gender, years of service, and age of the UMY non-lecturer staff show that most respondents’ were female (78%), most had a work period of 15 years and over (55%), and most respondents’ age was between 30 and 40 (45%).
Based on the results of the data processing, the mean value of workplace spirituality was 4.32. It can be said that UMY non-lecturer staff‘s workplace spirituality was good, with an average standard deviation of 0.40. Meanwhile, the mean value of workplace deviant behavior of UMY non-lecturer staff was 4.24, and the average standard deviation was 0.44. It can be said that there were not many workplace deviant behaviors among UMY non-lecturer staff. Besides, the mean value of job satisfaction was 4.00, and the average standard deviation was 0.41. It can be said that the UMY non-lecturer staff’s job satisfaction was good. Furthermore, the mean value of employee performance was 4.34, with an average standard deviation of 0.39. Thus, it can be said that UMY non-lecturer staff’s performance was good.
From the descriptive analysis results, the standard deviation value was below the mean value, so it can be said that the data on workplace spirituality, workplace deviant behavior, job satisfaction, and employee performance were homogeneous. Also, the standard deviation value was below the mean value, so that it can be said that all data were homogeneous.
The reliability test used Cronbach’s alpha. The data are reliable if Cronbach’s alpha is above 0.7 (Nunally, 1978). From the results of data processing in Table 1, it can be seen that Cronbach’s alpha value for each variable was reliable.
Table 1: Reliability Test Results
Inner model testing in Table 2 was performed by looking at the R-Square (R2) value in the dependent construct. The latent variable of workplace deviant behavior could be explained by the latent variable of workplace spirituality, which was 51.2%. Meanwhile, the remaining 48.8% was explained by other variables not examined in this research model. Besides, the R2 value of the latent variable job satisfaction was 30.78. It indicated that the latent variable of job satisfaction could be explained by the latent variable of workplace spirituality, while 69.22% was explained by other variables outside this study. Moreover, the R2 value of the latent variable employee performance was 54.8%. It signified that the latent variable of employee performance could be explained by variables of spirituality in the workplace and job satisfaction. Meanwhile, 45.2% was explained by other variables outside the study.
Table 2: R-Square Results
The next test was to see the significance of the effect between the independent (exogenous) constructs on the dependent (endogenous) construct and to answer what has been hypothesized. On testing with a significance level of 5%, if the value of t-statistics was > 1.96, the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected.
6. Discussion
6.1. Workplace Spirituality and Workplace Deviant Behavior
Based on the t-test using the Partial Least Square (PLS) in Figure 1 and Table 3, it is known that workplace spirituality affected and was significant in workplace deviant behavior with a coefficient value of 0.712 and significant with an at-count value of 10.961349 more than the t-table of 1.96. Hypothesis 1 was supported, stating that workplace spirituality had a significant effect on workplace deviant behavior. It is in line with the research results of Zhang (2018), Septa, (2018), and Siswanto (2018), which asserted that workplace spirituality influenced and was significant on deviant behavior. The same result was also revealed by Sulaiman and Bhatti (2013). Non-lecturer staff can implement workplace spirituality, which is the meaning of work in the form of happiness in the work, both for themself and others, for the results of their work, the desire to work every day; there is a sense of togetherness with the environment and alignment of value in the form of spiritual values in every educational workforce, so that workplace deviant behavior can be reduced in getting the job done.
Figure 1: Research Model
Table 3: Path Coefficients (Mean, STDEV, T-Values)
6.2. Workplace Spirituality and Job Satisfaction
Based on the t-test using the Partial Least Square (PLS) in Figure 1 and Table 3, it is known that workplace spirituality significantly impacted job satisfaction and was significant, with a coefficient value of 0.558 and at-count value of 6.521498, which was more than the t-table of 1.96. Hypothesis 2, stating that workplace spirituality significantly affected job satisfaction, was accepted. It is in line with the research of Zhang (2018), Hassan et al. (2016), and Van der Walt and De Klerk (2014), which showed that workplace spirituality influenced job satisfaction. The results of the same study were also produced by Tasneem et al. (2017). This study illustrates that, when non-lecturer staff’s workplace spirituality (meaning work, sense of community, and alignment of value) is good, then job satisfaction is achieved.
6.3. Workplace Spirituality and Employee Performance
Based on the t-test using the Partial Least Square (PLS) in Figure 1 and Table 3, it is known that workplace spirituality did not affect employee performance with a coefficient value of 0.112 and t-count value of 0.843264 smaller than the t-table of 1.96. Hypothesis 3 was rejected, which stated that workplace spirituality had a significant effect on employee performance. This study’s results are not consistent with the research by Soha et al. (2016) and Albuquerque et al. (2014). However, this study’s results are coherent with the findings of Pratama (2014) and Umam et al. (2017), where workplace spirituality did not affect employee performance. The relationship between workplace spirituality and employee performance still leaves a research gap that can still be developed into a research problem in further studies. Workplace spirituality (meaning work, sense of community and alignment of value) of non-lecturer staff does not affect employee performance. This is because the performance of the non-lecturer staff workforce is already well underway with the culture of institutional organizations that obliged staff to participate, and self-awareness to provide contingency results to institutions to continuously improve their performance through existing online performance systems.
6.4. Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance
Based on the t-test using the Partial Least Square (PLS) in Figure 1 and Table 3, job satisfaction impacted employee performance and was significant, with a coefficient value of 0.442 and at-count value of 5.180313, which was higher than the t-table of 1.96. Hypothesis 4, which stated that job satisfaction significantly affected employee performance, was supported. This study’s results are in line with research conducted by Rodsutti and Swierczek (2002), Inuwa (2016), Khan (2012), and Destari et al. (2018). Based on the theory of Job satisfaction two factors from Herzberg (Lindsay et al., 1967), in the form of motivation and hygiene, have been felt by non-lecturer staff improving the performance of the employees or the results of their work. Besides, job satisfaction is seen by the achievement of obtaining performance benefits based on annual performance.
6.5. Workplace Deviant Behavior and Employee Performance
Based on the t-test using the Partial Least Square (PLS) in Figure 1 and Table 3, it is known that workplace deviant behavior had an effect on employee performance and was significant, with a coefficient value of 0.335 and at-count value of 3.316936, higher than the t-table of 1.96. Hypothesis 5 was accepted, which states that workplace deviant behavior significantly affected employee performance. It supports the research of Muafi (2011) and Yupono (2018). Workplace deviant behavior in the form of indiscipline, non-compliance with rules and leadership, and misuse of low facilities, make the performance of non-lecturer staff or the work of the non-lecturer staff increase. This is also due to good self-awareness of his role as a non-lecturer staff and because of the understanding of the work, the sense of togetherness, and alignment of good value.
6.6. Job Satisfaction and Workplace Deviant Behavior
Based on the t-test using the Partial Least Square (PLS) in Figure 1 and Table 3, it is known that had an effect Job Satisfaction on workplace deviant behavior and was significant, with a coefficient value of 0,005 and at-count value of 0,057092, lower than the t-table of 1.96. Hypothesis 6 was rejected, which stated that job satisfaction had a significant effect on workplace deviant behavior. This study’s results are not consistent with the research done by Malhotra et.al (2017), Appelbaum et al. (2006), Roznowski and Hulin, in Yusof (2011), and Mahyarni (2019). However, this study’s results are coherent with the findings of Bowling (2010) and Nakasi (2019) where job satisfaction did not affect counterproductive behavior. Bowling (2010) state that was evidenced by working conditions or experiences for example favorable job attitudes. Every non-lecturer staff already feels attachment and diss edited activities according to the culture of the organization that exists in the workplace, so that when there are various workplace deviant behaviors, they try not to violate. Job satisfaction has been perceived to have no impact on the decrease in deviant behavior.
6.7. Job Satisfaction Mediates the Influence of Workplace Spirituality on Workplace Deviant Behavior
Based on the calculation results of the Sobel test (https:// www.danielsoper.com), the Sobel test statistic value was 0.05707851 <1.96, with a significance level of 5%. It proved that job satisfaction could not mediate the influence of workplace spirituality on workplace deviant behavior. Therefore, Hypothesis 7, which stated that job satisfaction mediated the effect of workplace spirituality on workplace deviant behavior, was rejected. These results do not support the study by Crede et al. (2007) and Zhang (2018). It happened in the condition of the UMY non-lecturer staff in their self-meaning, sense of togetherness, and organizational values that had fused into themselves, so that deviant behavior due to job dissatisfaction in the workplace did not occur. It was also because they have already had awareness, which was an obligation and commitment not to abuse the organization’s activities and resources without going through the job satisfaction they felt.
7. Conclusion
This study results indicate that some factors had effects and others had none. Those that had effects included workplace spirituality, which affected workplace deviant behavior; workplace spirituality, which influenced job satisfaction; job satisfaction, which impacted employee performance; and workplace deviant behavior, which affected employee performance. Meanwhile, the research results showed that workplace spirituality did not affect employee performance, job satisfaction did not influence workplace deviant behavior and job satisfaction could not mediate the influence of workplace spirituality on workplace deviant behavior.
Research results that did not show effects include workplace spirituality, which did not affect employee performance, and job satisfaction, which could not mediate the effect of workplace spirituality on workplace deviant behavior. There is still a research gap that should be investigated in subsequent research by proposing other variables as mediation and moderation.
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