DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Adverse Effect of Exposure to Ambient Particular Matter on Neuropsychiatric Disorder

미세먼지노출이 신경정신장애에 미치는 영향

  • Lim, Myung Ho (Department of Psychology & Psychotherapy, College of Health Science, Dankook University) ;
  • Kim, Jong-Hun (Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine) ;
  • Kwon, Ho Jang (Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dankook University) ;
  • Cheong, Hae-Kwan (Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine)
  • 임명호 (단국대학교 심리치료학과) ;
  • 김종헌 (성균관대학교 의과대학 사회의학교실) ;
  • 권호장 (단국대학교 의과대학 예방의학교실) ;
  • 정해관 (성균관대학교 의과대학 사회의학교실)
  • Received : 2020.03.05
  • Accepted : 2020.07.17
  • Published : 2020.10.30

Abstract

Particular matter is steadily increasing due to environmental factors at domestic and abroad such as industry and economy. Recently, the exposure particular matters has been reported to increase the risk not only for morbidity and mortality, but also for diseases of the respiratory system, cardiovascular system and central nervous system/neuropsychiatric disorder. Although the causes of neuropsychiatric diseases are genetic and environmental factors, it is necessary to pay more attention to environmental factors in terms of prevention. We mainly describe environmental factors that affect neuropsychiatric disorders, mainly on particular matter, which is one of harmful environmental substances. In the current study, we reviewed evidence for the presence of particular matter or particular matter related harmful air pollutants-O3, SO2, NO2/NOx, traffic related air pollution, that may represent risk factors for the development of neuropsychiatric disorder.

Keywords

References

  1. Cho SC, Shin YO. Prevalence of disruptive behavior disorders. Korean J Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994;5:141-149.
  2. Eaves LJ, Silberg JL, Meyer JM, Maes HH, Simonoff E, Pickles A, et al. Genetics and developmental psychopathology: the main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1997;38:965-980. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01614.x
  3. Lim MH, Paik KC, Lee JY, Yoo SJ, Ha M, Kwon HJ. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and environmental factor. Dankook Med J 2009;20:29-38.
  4. Gladka A, Rymaszewska J, Zatonski T. Impact of air pollution on depression and suicide. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 2018;31:711-721.
  5. Oberdoorster G, Sharp Z, Atudorei V, Elder A, Gelein R, Kreyling W. Translocation of inhaled ultrafine particles to the brain. Inhal Toxicol 2004;16:437-445. https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370490439597
  6. Dhuria SV, Hanson LR, Frey WH. Intranasal delivery to the central nervous system: mechanisms and experimental considerations. J Pharm Sci 2010;99:1654-1673. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.21924
  7. Wang Y, Eliot MN, Koutrakis P, Gryparis A, Schwartz JD, Coull BA, et al. Ambient air pollution and depressive symptoms in older adults: Results from the MOBILIZE Boston Study. Environ Health Perspect 2014;122:553-558. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205909
  8. Calderoon-Garciduennas L, Maronpot RR, Torres-Jardon R, Henriiquez-Roldaan C, Schoonhoven R, Acunna-Ayala H, et al. DNA damage in nasal and brain tissues of canines exposed to air pollutants is associated with evidence of chronic brain inflammation and neurodegeneration. Toxicol Pathol 2003;31:524-538. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926230390226645
  9. Geiser M, Rothen-Rutishauser B, Kapp N, Schurch S, Kreling W, Schultz H, et al. Ultrafine particles cross cellular membranes by nonphagocytic mechanisms in lungs and in cultured cells. Environ Health Perspect 2005;113:1555-1560. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.8006
  10. Calderoon-Garciduennas L, Maronpot RR, Torres-Jardon R, Henriiquez-Roldaan C, Schoonhoven R, Acunna-Ayala H, et al. DNA damage in nasal and brain tissues of canines exposed to air pollutants is associated with evidence of chronic brain inflammation and neurodegeneration. Toxicol Pathol 2003;31:524-538. https://doi.org/10.1080/01926230390226645
  11. Doty RL. The olfactory vector hypothesis of neurodegenerative disease: is it viable? Ann Neurol 2008;63:7-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21327
  12. Wei H, Feng Y, Liang F, Cheng W. Role of oxidative stress and DNA hydroxymethylation in the neurotoxicity of fine particulate matter. Neurobiol Aging 2017;53:48-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2017.01.007
  13. Ku T, Ji X, Zhang Y, Li G. PM2.5, SO2 and NO2 co-exposure impairs neurobehavior and induces mitochondrial injuries in the mouse brain. Chemosphere 2016;163:27-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.009
  14. D'Mello C, Le T, Swain MG. Cerebral microglia recruit monocytes into the brain in response to tumor necrosis factor alpha signaling during peripheral organ inflammation. J Neurosci 2009;29:2089-102. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3567-08.2009
  15. Calderoon-Garciduennas L, Solt AC, Henriiquez-Roldaan C, Torres- Jardoon R, Nuse B, Herritt L, et al. Long-term air pollution exposure is associated with neuroinflammation, an altered innate immune response, disruption of the blood-brain barrier, ultrafine particulate deposition, and accumulation of amyloid beta-42 and alpha-synuclein in children and young adults. Toxicol Pathol 2008;36:289-310. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192623307313011
  16. Maier SF, Watkins LR. Cytokines for psychologists: Implications of bidirectional immune-to-brain communication for understanding behavior, mood, and cognition. Psychol Rev 1998;105:83-107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.1.83
  17. Clark IA, Alleva LM, Vissel B. The roles of TNF in brain dysfunction and disease. Pharmacol Ther 2010;128:519-548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.08.007
  18. Chen JC, Schwartz J. Neurobehavioral effects of ambient air pollution on cognitive performance in US adults. Neurotoxicology 2009;30:231-239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2008.12.011
  19. Ailshire JA, Crimmins EM. Fine particulate matter air pollution and cog-nitive function among older US adults. Am J Epidemiol 2014;180:359-366. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwu155
  20. Gatto NM, Henderson VW, Hodis HN, St John JA, Lurmann F, Chen JC, et al. Components of air pollution and cognitive function in middle-aged and older adults in Los Angeles. Neurotoxicology 2014;40:1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2013.09.004
  21. Tzivian L, Dlugaj M, Winkler A, Weinmayr G, Hennig F, Fuks KB, et al. Long-term air pollution and traffic noise exposures and mild cognitive impairment in older adults: a cross-sectional analysis of the Heinz Nixdorf recall study. Environ Health Perspect 2016;124:1361-1368. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1509824
  22. Weuve J, Puett RC, Schwartz J, Yanosky JD, Laden F, Grodstein F. Exposure to particulate air pollution and cognitive decline in older women. Arch Intern Med 2012;172:219-227. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2011.683
  23. Loop MS, Kent ST, Al-Hamdan MZ, Crosson WL, Estes SM, Estes MG Jr, et al. Fine particulate matter and incident cognitive impairment in the reasons for geographic and racial differences in stroke (REGARDS) cohort. PLoS One 2013;8:e75001. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075001
  24. Tonne C, Elbaz A, Beevers S, Singh-Manoux A. Traffic-related air pollution in relation to cognitive function in older adults. Epidemiology 2014;25:674-681. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000144
  25. Inserra SG, Phifer BL, Anger WK, Lewin M, Hilsdon R, White MC. Neurobehavioral evaluation for a community with chronic exposure to hydrogen sulfide gas. Environ Res 2004;95:53-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2003.08.005
  26. Ranft U, Schikowski T, Sugiri D, Krutmann J, Kramer U. Long-term exposure to traffic-related particulate matter impairs cognitive function in the elderly. Environ Res 2009;109:1004-1011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2009.08.003
  27. Cruts B, van Etten L, Tornqvist H, Blomberg A, Sandstrom T, Mills NL, et al. Exposure to diesel exhaust induces changes in EEG in human volunteers. Part Fibre Toxicol 2008;5:4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-5-4
  28. Power MC, Weisskopf MG, Alexeeff SE, Coull BA, Spiro A III, Schwartz J. Traffic-related air pollution and cognitive function in a cohort of older men. Environ Health Perspect 2011;119:682-687. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002767
  29. Bowler RM, Kornblith ES, Gocheva VV, Colledge MA, Bollweg G, Kim Y, et al. Environmental exposure to manganese in air: associations with cognitive functions. Neurotoxicology 2015;49:139-148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2015.06.004
  30. Jung CR, Lin YT, Hwang BF. Ozone, particulate matter, and newly diagnosed Alzheimer's disease: a population-based cohort study in Taiwan. J Alzheimers Dis 2015;44:573-584. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-140855
  31. Heydarpour P, Amini H, Khoshkish S, Seidkhani H, Sahraian MA, Yunesian M. Potential impact of air pollution on multiple sclerosis in Tehran, Iran. Neuroepidemiology 2014;43:233-238. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368553
  32. Angelici L, Piola M, Cavalleri T, Randi G, Cortini F, Bergamaschi R, et al. Effects of particulate matter exposure on multiple sclerosis hospital admis-sion in Lombardy Region, Italy. Environ Res 2016;145:68-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.11.017
  33. Chang KH, Chang MY, Muo CH, Wu TN, Chen CY, Kao CH. Increased risk of dementia in patients exposed to nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide: a population-based retrospective cohort study. PLoS One 2014;9:e103078. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103078
  34. Oudin A, Forsberg B, Adolfsson AN, Lind N, Modig L, Nordin M, et al. Traffic-related air pollution and dementia incidence in Northern Sweden: a longitudinal study. Environ Health Perspect 2016;124:306-312. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408322
  35. Malek AM, Barchowsky A, Bowser R, Heiman-Patterson T, Lacomis D, Rana S, et al. Exposure to hazardous air pollutants and the risk of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Environ Pollut 2015;197:181-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2014.12.010
  36. Kim E, Park H, Hong YC, Ha M, Kim Y, Kim BN, et al. Prenatal exposure to PM(1)(0) and NO(2) and children's neurodevelopment from birth to 24 months of age: mothers and children's environmental health (MOCEH) study. Sci Total Environ 2014;481:439-445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.107
  37. Chiu YH, Hsu HH, Coull BA, Bellinger DC, Kloog I, Schwartz J, et al. Prenatal particulate air pollution and neurodevelopment in urban children: examining sensitive windows and sex-specific associations. Environ Int 2016;87:56-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.11.010
  38. Porta D, Narduzzi S, Badaloni C, Bucci S, Cesaroni G, Colelli V, et al. Air pollution and cognitive development at age 7 in a prospective Italian birth cohort. Epidemiology 2016;27:228-236. https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0000000000000405
  39. Perera FP, Rauh V, Whyatt RM, Tsai WY, Tang D, Diaz D, et al. Effect of prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on neuro-development in the first 3 years of life among innercity children. Environ Health Perspect 2006;114:1287-1292. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9084
  40. Tang D, Li TY, Liu JJ, Zhou ZJ, Yuan T, Chen YH, et al. Effects of prenatal exposure to coal-burning pollutants on children's development in China. Environ Health Perspect 2008;116:674-679. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10471
  41. Lovasi GS, Eldred-Skemp N, Quinn JW, Chang HW, Rauh VA, Rundle A, et al. Neighborhood social context and individual polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbon exposures associated with child cognitive test scores. J Child Fam Stud 2014;23:785-799. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-013-9731-4
  42. Guxens M, Garcia-Esteban R, Giorgis-Allemand L, Forns J, Badaloni C, Ballester F, et al. Air pollution during pregnancy and childhood cognitive and psychomotor development: six European birth cohorts. Epidemiology 2014;25:636-647. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0000000000000133
  43. Cowell WJ, Bellinger DC, Coull BA, Gennings C, Wright RO, Wright RJ. Associations between prenatal exposure to black carbon and memory domains in Urban children: modification by sex and prenatal stress. PLoS One 2015;10:e0142492. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142492
  44. van Kempen E, Fischer P, Janssen N, Houthuijs D, van Kamp I, Stansfeld S, et al. Neurobehavioral effects of exposure to traffic-related air pollution and transportation noise in primary schoolchildren. Environ Res 2012;115:18-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2012.03.002
  45. Grineski SE, Clark-Reyna SE, Collins TW. School-based exposure to hazard-ous air pollutants and grade point average: a multi-level study. Environ Res 2016;147:164-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.02.004
  46. Suglia SF, Gryparis A, Wright RO, Schwartz J, Wright RJ. Association of black carbon with cognition among children in a prospective birth cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 2008;167:280-286. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwm308
  47. Freire C, Ramos R, Puertas R, Lopez-Espinosa MJ, Julvez J, Aguilera I, et al. Association of traffic-related air pollution with cognitive development in children. J Epidemiol Community Health 2010;64:223-228. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2008.084574
  48. Lin CC, Yang SK, Lin KC, Ho WC, Hsieh WS, Shu BC, et al. Multilevel analysis of air pollution and early childhood neurobehavioral develop-ment. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2014;11:6827-6241. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110706827
  49. Harris MH, Gold DR, Rifas-Shiman SL, Melly SJ, Zanobetti A, Coull BA, et al. Prenatal and childhood traffic-related pollution exposure and childhood cognition in the project viva cohort (Massachusetts, USA). Environ Health Perspect 2015;123:1072-1078. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408803
  50. Becerra TA, Wilhelm M, Olsen J, Cockburn M, Ritz B. Ambient air pollution and autism in Los Angeles County, California. Environ Health Perspect 2013;121:380-386. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205827
  51. Raz R, Roberts AL, Lyall K, Hart JE, Just AC, Laden F, et al. Autism spectrum disorder and particulate matter air pollution before, during, and after pregnancy: a nested case-control analysis within the nurses' health study II cohort. Environ Health Perspect 2015;123: 264-270. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408133
  52. Kalkbrenner ae, Daniels JL, Chen JC, Poole C, Emch M, Morrissey J. Perinatal exposure to hazardous air pollutants and autism spectrum disorders at age 8. Epidemiology 2010;21:631-641. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181e65d76
  53. Talbott EO, Arena VC, Rager JR, Clougherty JE, Michanowicz DR, Sharma RK, et al. Fine particulate matter and the risk of autism spectrum disorder. Environ Res 2015;140:414-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.04.021
  54. Guxens M, Ghassabian A, Gong T, Garcia-Esteban R, Porta D, Giorgis-Allemand L, et al. Air pollution exposure during pregnancy and childhood autistic traits in four European population-based cohort studies: the ESCAPE project. Environ Health Perspect 2016;124:133-140. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408483
  55. Windham GC, Zhang L, Gunier R, Croen LA, Grether JK. Autism spec-trum disorders in relation to distribution of hazardous air pollutants in the San Francisco Bay Area. Environ Health Perspect 2006;114:1438-1444. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9120
  56. Volk HE, Hertz-Picciotto I, Delwiche L, Lurmann F, McConnell R. Residential proximity to freeways and autism in the CHARGE study. Environ Health Perspect 2011;119:873-877. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002835
  57. Jung CR, Lin YT, Hwang BF. Air pollution and newly diagnostic autism spectrum disorders: a population-based cohort study in Taiwan. PLoS One 2013;8:e75510. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075510
  58. Roberts AL, Lyall K, Hart JE, Laden F, Just AC, Bobb JF, et al. Perinatal air pollutant exposures and autism spectrum disorder in the children of nurses' health study ii participants. Environ Health Perspect 2013;121:978-984. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206187
  59. Volk HE, Hertz-Picciotto I, Delwiche L, Lurmann F, McConnell R. Residential proximity to freeways and autism in the CHARGE study. Environ Health Perspect 2011;119:873-877. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002835
  60. Siddique S, Banerjee M, Ray MR, Lahiri T. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children chronically exposed to high level of vehicular pollution. Eur J Pediatr 2011;170:923-929. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-010-1379-0
  61. Gong T, Almqvist C, Bolte S, Lichtenstein P, Anckarsater H, Lind T, et al. Exposure to air pollution from traffic and neurodevelopmental disorders in Swedish twins. Twin Res Hum Genet 2014;17:553-562. https://doi.org/10.1017/thg.2014.58
  62. Newman NC, Ryan P, Lemasters G, Levin L, Bernstein D, Hershey GK, et al. Traffic-related air pollution exposure in the first year of life and behavioral scores at 7 years of age. Environ Health Perspect 2013;121:731-736. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205555
  63. Kim KN. Lim YH, Bae HJ, Kim MH, Jung K, Hong YC. Longterm fine particulate matter exposure and major depressive disorder in a community-based urban cohort. Environmental health perspectives 2016;124:1547-1553. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP192
  64. Lim YH, Kim H, Kim JH, Bae S, Park HY, Hong YC. Air pollution and symptoms of depression in elderly adults. Environ Health Perspect 2012;120:1023-1028. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104100
  65. Kioumourtzoglou MA, Power MC, Hart JE, Okereke OI, Coull BA, Laden F, et al. The association between air pol\-lution and onset of depression among middle-aged and older women. Am J Epidemiol 2017;29:1-9.
  66. Roberts S, Arseneault L, Barratt B, Beervers S, Danese A, Odgers CL, et al. Exploration of NO2 and PM2.5 air pollution and mental health problems using high-resolution data in London-based children from a UK longitudinal cohort study, Psychiatry Research 2019;272:8-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.050
  67. Pun VC, Manjourides J, Suh H. Association of ambient air pollution with depressive and anxiety symptoms in older adults: results from the NSHAP study. Environmental Health Perspectives 2017;125:342-348. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP494
  68. Vert C, Sanchez-Benavides G, Martinez D, Gotsens X, Gramunt N, Cirach M, et al. Effect of long-term exposure to air pollution on anxiety and depression in adults: a cross-sectional study. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017;220:1074-1080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.06.009
  69. Tallon LA, Manjourides J. Erectile dysfunction and exposure to ambient air pollution in a nationally representative cohort of older men. Environ Health 2017;16:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-017-0216-6
  70. Lin Y, Zhou L. The impacts of air pollution on maternal stress during pregnancy. Sci Rep 2017;7:40956. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep40956
  71. Davis DA, Bortolato M, Godar SC, Sander TK, Iwata N, Pakbin P, et al. Prenatal exposure to urban air nanoparticles in mice causes altered neuronal differentiation and depression-like responses. PLoS One 2013;8:e64128. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064128
  72. Calderoon-Garciduennas L, Engle R, Mora-Tiscarenno A, Styner M, Goomez-Garza G, Zhu H, et al. Exposure to severe urban air pollution influences cognitive outcomes, brain volume and systemic inflammation in clinically healthy children. Brain Cogn 2011;77:345-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2011.09.006
  73. Wang Y, Eliot MN, Koutrakis P, Gryparis A, Schwartz JD, Coull BA, et al. Ambient air pollution and depressive symp\-toms in older adults: Results from the MOBILIZE Boston Study. Environ Health Perspect 2014;122:553-558. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205909
  74. Szyszkowicz M, Kousha T, Kingsbury M, Colman I. Air pollution and emergency department visits for depression: a multicity casecrossover study. Environ Health Insights 2016;10:155-161.
  75. Perera FP, Tang D, Wang S, Vishnevetsky J, Zhang B, Diaz D, et al. Prenatal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure and child behavior at age 6-7 years. Environ Health Perspect 2012;120:921-926. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104315
  76. Szyszkowicz M, Kousha T, Kingsbury M, Colman I. Air pollution and emergency department visits for depression: a multicity casecrossover study. Environ Health Insights 2016;10:155-161.
  77. Szyszkowicz M, Willey JB, Grafstein E, Rowe BH, Colman I. Air pollution and emergency department visits for suicide attempts in Vancouver, Canada. Environ Health Insights 2010;4:79-86. https://doi.org/10.4137/EHI.S5662
  78. Kim YH, Ng CFS, Chung YS, Kim H, Honda Y, Guo YL, et al. Air pollution and suicide in 10 cities in Northeast Asia: a time-stratified case-crossover analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives 2018;126:037002. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2223
  79. Kim CS, Jung SH, Kang DR, Kim HC, Moon KT, Hur NW, et al. Ambient particulate matter as a risk factor for suicide. American Journal of Psychiatry 2010;167:1100-1107. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09050706
  80. Min JY, Kim HJ, Min KB. Long-term exposure to air pollution and the risk of suicide death: a population-based cohort study. Science of the total environment 2018;628:573-579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.011
  81. Lin GZ, Li L, Song YF. The impact of ambient air pollution on suicide mortality: a case-crossover study in Guangzhou, China. Environ Health 2016;15:90. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-016-0177-1
  82. Ng CFS, Stickley A, Konishi S, Watanabe C. Ambient air pollution and suicide in Tokyo, 2001-2011. J Affect Disord 2016;201:194-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.006
  83. Casas L, Cox B, Bauwelinck M, Nemery B, Deboosere P, Nawrot TS. Does air pollution trigger suicide? A case-crossover analysis of suicide deaths over the life span. Eur J Epidemiol 2017;32:973-981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-017-0273-8
  84. Bakian AV, Huber RS, Coon H, Gray D, Wilson P, McMahon WM, et al. Acute air pollution exposure and risk of suicide completion Am J Epidemiol 2015;181:295-303. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwu341
  85. Liu W, Sun H, Zhang X, Chen Q, Xu Y, Chen X, et al. Air pollution associated with non-suicidal self-injury in Chinese adolescent students: a cross-sectional study. Chemosphere 2018;209:944-949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.06.168
  86. Yang AC, Tsai SJ, Huang NE. Decomposing the association of completed suicide with air pollution, weather, and unemployment data at different time scales. J Affect Disord 2011;129(1-3):275-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.08.010
  87. Kim Y, Myung W, Won HH, Shim S, Jeon HJ, Choi J, et al. Association between air pollution and suicide in South Korea: A nationwide study. PLoS One 2015;10:e0117929. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117929