Fig.1 HPLC fingerprints of A) WSR (total content of Withanolides =2.7%), B) WSA (Total content of Withanolides = 1.5%), and C) WSS(total contents of Withanolides = 3.0%).
Fig.2 Summary of the experimental procedures and tests used.
Fig.3 Effect of occasional foot shock stress (duration 50 seconds) on mean body weight of male (A and B) and female mice (C and D) treated eitherwith the extracts of roots (WSR), stems (WSS) or areal parts (WSA) of Withania somnifera, or with diazepam (DZP) imipramine (IMIP), metformin(MET), nicotinic acid (NA), or aspirin (ASA) during the course of the experiments.
Fig.4 Effect of occasional foot shock stress (duration 50 seconds) on mean basal core temperatures of male (A and B) and female mice (C and D) treated either with the extracts of roots (WSR), stems (WSS) or areal parts (WSA) of Withania somnifera, or with diazepam (DZP) imipramine (IMIP), metformin (MET), nicotinic acid (NA), or aspirin (ASA) during the course of the experiments.
Fig. 5 Effect of occasional foot shock stress (duration 50 seconds) on stress induced hyperthermia of male (A and B) and female mice (C and D) treated either with the extracts of roots (WSR), stems (WSS) or areal parts (WSA) of Withania somnifera, or with diazepam (DZP) imipramine (IMIP), metformin (MET), nicotinic acid (NA), or aspirin (ASA) during the course of the experiments.
Fig. 6 Effect of occasional foot shock stress (duration 50 seconds) on hot plate reaction time of male (A and B) and female mice (C and D) treated either with the extracts of roots (WSR), stems (WSS) or areal parts (WSA) of Withania somnifera, or with diazepam (DZP) imipramine (IMIP), metformin (MET), nicotinic acid (NA), or aspirin (ASA) during the course of the experiments.
Fig. 7 Effect of occasional foot shock stress (duration 50 seconds) on tail suspension test of male (A and B) and female mice (C and D) treated either with the extracts of roots (WSR), stems (WSS) or areal parts (WSA) of Withania somnifera, or with diazepam (DZP) imipramine (IMIP), metformin (MET), nicotinic acid (NA), or aspirin (ASA) during the course of the experiments.
Fig.8 Effect of occasional foot shock stress (duration 50 seconds) on pentobarbital induced sleep test of male (A and B) and female mice (C and D) treated either with the extracts of roots (WSR), stems (WSS) or areal parts (WSA) of Withania somnifera, or with diazepam (DZP) imipramine (IMIP), metformin (MET), nicotinic acid (NA), or aspirin (ASA) during the course of the experiments.
References
- Alam N, Hossain M, Khalil MI, Moniruzzaman M, Sulaiman SA, Gan SH. High catechin concentrations detected in Withania somnifera (ashwagandha) by high performance liquid chromatography analysis. BMC Complement Altern Med 2011:11(1): 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-11-65
- Ameh SJ, Toge BK, Ebeshi BU, Ambi AA, Garba M, Alfa J, Gamaniel KS. Herbal Drug Development from Traditional Formulations: Refocusing Pharmaceutics and Posology for Accelerated Validation. Brit J Pharm Res. 2014:4(12):1451-76. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJPR/2014/10617
- Andrew R, Izzo AA. Principles of pharmacological research of nutraceuticals. Br J Pharmacol. 2017:174(11):1177-94. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13779
- Balasubramani SP, Venkatasubramanian P, Kukkupuni SK, Patwardhan B. Plant-based Rasayana drugs from Ayurveda. Chin J Integr Med/ 2011:17(2):88-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11655-011-0659-5
- Berk M, Dean O, Drexhage H, McNeil JJ, Moylan S, O'Neil A, Davey CG, Sanna L, Maes M. Aspirin: a review of its neurobiological properties and therapeutic potential for mental illness. BMC Med. 2013:11:74. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-74
- Bharti SK, Bhatia A, Tewari SK, Sidhu OP, Roy R. Application of HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy for studying chemotype variations of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. Magn Reson Chem. 2011:49(10): 659-667. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrc.2817
- Bhatia A, Bharti SK, Tewari SK, Sidhu OP, Roy R. Metabolic profiling for studying chemotype variations in Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal fruits using GC-MS and NMR spectroscopy. Phytochemistry. 2013:93:105-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.03.013
- Can A, Dao DT, Terrillion CE, Piantadosi SC, Bhat S, Gould TD. The tail suspension test. J Vis Exp. 2012:59:3769.
- Chatterjee S, Srivastava S, Khalid A, Singh N, Sangwan RS, Sidhu OP, Roy R, Khetrapal CL, Tuli, R. Comprehensive metabolic fingerprinting of Withania somnifera leaf and root extracts. Phytochemistry. 2010:71(10):1085-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.04.001
- Chatterjee SS, Kumar V. Quantitative Systems Pharmacology: Lessons from Fumaric acid and Herbal Remedies. Drug Designing. 2017:6(152):1-9.
- Dar NJ, Hamid A, Ahmad M. Pharmacologic overview of Withania somnifera the Indian Ginseng. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2015:72: 4445-60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-015-2012-1
- Dey A, Chatterjee SS, Kumar V. Analgesic activity of a Withania somnifera extract in stressed mice. Orient Pharm Exp Med. 2016:16(4):295-302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-016-0245-7
- Dey A, Chatterjee SS, Kumar V. Low dose effects of a Withania somnifera extract on altered marble burying behavior in stressed mice. J Intercult Ethnopharmacol. 2016:5(3): 274-277. https://doi.org/10.5455/jice.20160414104917
- Hankin BL, Abramson LY. Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability transactional stress theory. Psychol Bull. 2001:127(6): 773-796. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773
- Kaushik MK, Kaul SC, Wadhwa R, Yanagisawa M, Urade Y. Triethylene glycol, an active component of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) leaves, is responsible for sleep induction. PLoS One. 2017:12(2):e0172508. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172508
- Khan SA, Chatterjee SS, Kumar V. Low dose aspirin like analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of monohydroxybenzoic acids in stressed rodents. Life Sci. 2016:148:53-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2016.02.032
- Dempsey DA, Klessig DF. How does the multifaceted plant hormone salicylic acid combat disease in plants and are similar mechanisms utilized in humans? BMC Biol. 2017:15(1): 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-017-0364-8
- Kumar A, Kaul MK, Bhan MK, Khanna PK, Suri KA. Morphological and chemical variation in 25 collections of the Indian medicinal plant, Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae). Genet Resour Crop Evol. 2007:54(3) 655-660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-006-9129-x
- Kumar V, Dey A, Chatterjee SS Phytopharmacology of Ashwagandha as an Anti-Diabetic Herb. In: Science of Ashwagandha: Preventive and Therapeutic Potentials. Kaul SC, Wadhwa R. ed. (Basel, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing), pp.37-68, 2017.
- Kumar V, Dey A, Hadimani MB, Marcovic T, Emerald M Chemistry and pharmacology of Withania somnifera: An update. TANG [Humanitas Medicine]. 2015:5: e1.
- Kumar V, Thakur AK, Verma S, Yadav V, Chatterjee SS. Potential of some traditionally used edible plants for prevention and cure of diabesity associated comorbidities. TANG [Humanitas Medicine]. 2015:5(2):8.1-8.22. https://doi.org/10.5667/tang.2014.0026
- Mathur R, Velpandian T Medicinal plant-based health products: Where is the medicinal constituent? Indian J Pharmacol. 2009:41(4):205-206. https://doi.org/10.4103/0253-7613.56063
- Murthy HN, Dijkstra C, Anthony P, White DA, Davey MR, Power JB, Hahn EJ, Paek KY. Establishment of Withania somnifera hairy root cultures for the production of withanolide A. J Integr Plant Biol 2008:50(8):975-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7909.2008.00680.x
- Ojima K, Matsumoto K, Tohda M, Watanabe H. Hyperactivity of central noradrenergic and CRF system is involved in social isolation-induced decrease in pentobarbital sleep. Brain Res. 1995:684(1):87-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(95)00388-7
- Olff M, Langeland W, Draijer N, Gersons BP. Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Bull. 2007:133(2):183-204. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.183
- Orru A, Casu MA, Tambaro S, Marchese G, Casu G, Ruiu S. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal root extract alleviates formalin-induced nociception in mice: involvement of the opioidergic system. Behav Pharmacol. 2016:27(1):57-68. https://doi.org/10.1097/FBP.0000000000000195
- Pal A, Kumar M, Saharan V, Bhushan B. Antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera L.) leaves. Journal of Global Biosciences 2015:4(1): 1127-37.
- Pratibha C, Madhumati B, Akarsh P. Therapeutic Properties and Significance of Different parts of Ashwagandha-A Medicinal Plant. International Journal of Pure & Applied Bioscience. 2013:1(6):94-101.
- Rahola JG. Somatic drugs for psychiatric diseases: aspirin or simvastatin for depression?. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2012:10(2):139-58. https://doi.org/10.2174/157015912800604533
- Rai M, Jogee PS, Agarkar G, dos Santos CA. Anticancer activities of Withania somnifera: Current research, formulations, and future perspectives. Pharm Biol. 2016:54(2):189-97. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2015.1027778
- Rauniyar BK, Shakya A, Thakur AK, Chatterjee SS, Kumar V. Anti-Stress Activity of Phloroglucinol: A Transient Metabolite of Some Plant Polyphenolics. Pharmacologia. 2015:6:21-30. https://doi.org/10.5567/pharmacologia.2015.21.30
- Rayees S, Malik F. Withania somnifera: From Traditional Use to Evidence Based Medicinal Prominence. In: Science of Ashwagandha: Preventive and Therapeutic Potentials. Kaul SC, Wadhwa R. ed. (Basel, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing), pp.81-103, 2017.
- Sangwan RS, Chaurasiya ND, Misra LN, Lal P, Uniyal GC, Sharma R, Sangwan NS, Suri KA, Qazi GN and Tuli R. Phytochemical variability in commercial herbal products and preparations of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha). Curr Sci. 2004:86(3):461-465.
- Shrivastava N, Dey A, Chatterjee SS, Kumar V. Adaptogenic Potential of Triethylene Glycol and Quercetin in Stressed Mice. Pharm Pharmacol Int J. 2015:2(6):197-206
- Singh B, Chandan BK, Gupta DK. Adaptogenic activity of a novel withanolide-free aqueous fraction from the roots of Withania somnifera Dun. (Part II). Phytother Res. 2003:17: 531-536. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.1189
- Singh B, Saxena AK, Chandan BK, Gupta DK, Bhutani KK, Anand KK. Adaptogenic activity of a novel, withanolide-free aqueous fraction from the roots of Withania somnifera Dun. Phytother Res. 2001:15:311-318. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.858
- Singh N, Bhalla M, de Jager P, Gilca M. Ashwagandha, An overview on ashwagandha: a Rasayana (rejuvenator) of Ayurveda. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2011:8(5 Suppl):208-13.
- Thakur AK, Dey A, Chatterjee SS, Kumar V. Reverse Ayurvedic pharmacology of Ashwagandha as an adaptogenic anti-diabetic plant: a pilot study. Curr Trad Med. 2015:1:51-61. https://doi.org/10.2174/2215083801999150527115205
- Turner RA. Analgesics. In Screening methods in pharmacology. (New York, USA: Academic Press), pp.100-102, 1965
- Virk JK, Bansal P, Gupta V, Kumar S, Singh R. Lack of pharmacological basis of substitution of an endangered plant group Ashtawarga-A significant ingredient of polyherbal formulations. American Journal of Phytomedicine and Clinical Therapeutics. 2015:2:690-712.
- Virk JK, Gupta V, Kumar S, Singh R, Bansal P. Ashtawarga plants-Suffering a triple standardization syndrome. J Tradit Complement Med. 2017:7(4):392-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.011
- Wadhwa R, Singh R, Gao R, Shah N, Widodo N, Nakamoto T, Ishida Y, Terao K, Kaul SC. Water extract of Ashwagandha leaves has anticancer activity: identification of an active component and its mechanism of action. PLoS One. 2013:8(10):e77189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077189
- Winston D, Maimes S. Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength, Stamina, and Stress Relief. (Vermont, USA : Inner Traditions-Bear & Co.), 2007.
- Yunus MB. Fibromyalgia and overlapping disorders: the unifying concept of central sensitivity syndromes. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2007;36(6): 339-356. doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2006.12.009.
- Yunus MB. Thematic issue: an update on central sensitivity syndromes and the issues of nosology and psychobiology. Curr Rheumatol Rev. 2015;11(2): 70-85. https://doi.org/10.2174/157339711102150702112236
- Zhou J, Chan L, Zhou S. Trigonelline: a plant alkaloid with therapeutic potential for diabetes and central nervous system disease. Curr Med Chem 2012;19(21): 3523-31. https://doi.org/10.2174/092986712801323171