Journal of The Korean Astronomical Society (천문학회지)

The Korean Astronomical Society (한국천문학회)
권호 표지
DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

ON THE FORMATION OF GIANT ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES AND GLOBULAR CLUSTERS

  • Published : 2003.09.01
Download PDF
⟨ Previous Next ⟩

Abstract

I review the current status of understanding when, how long, and how giant elliptical galaxies formed, focusing on the globular clusters. Several observational evidences show that massive elliptical galaxies formed at z > 2 (> 10 Gyr ago). Giant elliptical galaxies show mostly a bimodal color distribution of globular clusters, indicating a factor of $\approx$ 20 metallicity difference between the two peaks. The red globular clusters (RGCs) are closely related with the stellar halo in color and spatial distribution, while the blue globular clusters (BGCs) are not. The ratio of the number of the RGCs and that of the BGCs varies depending on galaxies. It is concluded that the BGCs might have formed 12-13 Gyr ago, while the RGCs and giant elliptical galaxies might have formed similarly 10-11 Gyr ago. It remains now to explain the existence of a gap between the RGC formation epoch and the BGC formation epoch, and the rapid metallicity increase during the gap (${\Delta}t{\approx}$ 2 Gyr). If hierarchical merging can form a significant number of giant elliptical galaxies > 10 Gyr ago, several observational constraints from stars and globular clusters in elliptical galaxies can be explained.

Keywords

References

  1. ApJ v.384 The Formation of Globular Clusters in Merging and Interacting Galaxies Ashman,K.M.;Zepf,S.E. https://doi.org/10.1086/170850
  2. Globular Cluster Systems Ashman,K.M.;Zepf,S.E.
  3. ApJ v.122 Some Constraints on the Formation of Globular Clusters Ashman, K.M.;Zepf,S.E.
  4. AJ v.119 M31 Globular Clusters: Colors and Metallicities Barmby (et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/301213
  5. astro-ph/9811242 Mergers and Galaxy Assembly Barnes,J.E. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.58601
  6. IAU Sympo. no.10 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams of old stellar Populations, in the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, Baum,W.;J.Greenstein(ed.)
  7. MNRAS v.318 Ages and Metallicities of Globular Clusters in NGC 4472 Beasley,M.A.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03885.x
  8. MNRAS v.333 On the Formation of Globular Cluster Systems in a Hierarchical Universe Beasley,M.A.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05402.x
  9. MNRAS v.340 Simultaneous Modelling of the Stellar Halo and Globular Cluster System of NGC 5128 Beasley,M.A.;Harris,W.E.;Harris,G.L.;Forbes,D.A. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06304.x
  10. MNRAS v.335 Globular Cluster Formation from Gravitational Tidal Effects of Merging and Interacting Galaxies Bekki,K.;Forbes,D.A.;Beasley,M.A.;Couch,W.J. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05708.x
  11. MNRAS v.338 Origin of the metallicity distribution of the NGC 5128 stellar halo Bekki,k.;Harris,W.E.;;Harris,G.L.H. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.05973.x
  12. ApJ v.399 Dynamically hot galaxies. I - Structural properties Bender,R.;Burstein,D.;Faber,S. https://doi.org/10.1086/171940
  13. MNRAS v.336 On the Continuous Formation of Field Spheroidal Galaxies in Hierarchical Models of Structure Formation Benson,A.J.;Ellis,R.S.;Menanteau,F. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05774.x
  14. MNRAS Early Preheating and Galaxy Formation Benson,A.J.;Madau,P. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06879.x
  15. AJ v.125 Early-type Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Ⅳ. Colors and Chemical Evolution Bernardi,M.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/367795
  16. BAAS Early-type Galaxies and their Environment: Constraints on Models of Galaxy Formation Bernardi,M.(et al.)
  17. Physics Report v.369 Submillimeter Galaxies Blain,A.W.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1016/S0370-1573(02)00134-5
  18. MNRAS v.254 Precision Photometry of Early-type Galaxies in the Coma and Virgo Clusters: a Test of the Universality of the Colour-Magnitude Relation Ⅱ. Analysis Bower,R.G.;Lucey,J.R.;Ellis,R.S. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/254.4.601
  19. MNRAS v.299 The Colour-magnitude Relation as a Constraint on the Formation of Rich Cluster Galaxies Bower;Kodama;Terlevich https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.1998.01868.x
  20. Review of Modern Astronomy v.7 On the Formation of Elliptical Galaxies Burkert,A.
  21. The Formation of Spheroidal Stellar Systems Burkert,A.;Naab,T.
  22. AJ v.114 Global Relationships Among the Physical Properties of Stellar Systems Burstein,D.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/118570
  23. MNRAS The Quasar Epoch and the Stellar Ages of Early-type Galaxies Cattanco,A.;Bernardi,M. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06778.x
  24. ApJ v.560 Synchronized Formation of Subgalactic Systems at Cosmological Reionization: Origin of Halo Globular Clusters Cen,R. https://doi.org/10.1086/323071
  25. Nature v.422 A Median Redshift of 2.4 for Galaxies Bright at Submillimetre Wavelengths Chapman,S.C.;Blain,A.W.;Ivison,R.J.;Smail,I. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01540
  26. MNRAS v.335 Formation and Evolution of Galaxies Chiosi,C.;Carraro,G. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05590.x
  27. A&A v.384 The K20 Survey I. Disentangling old and dusty star-forming galaxies in the ERO population Cimatti,A.(et al.)
  28. A&A v.391 The K20 Survey Ⅳ. The Redshift Distribution of Ks < 20 galaxies: A Test of Galaxy Formation Models Cimatti,A.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20021012
  29. The Formation and Evolution of Field Massive Galaxies Cimatti,A. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024611204365
  30. ApJ v.486 The Dynamics of the M87 Globular Cluster System Cohen,J.;Ryzhov,A. https://doi.org/10.1086/304518
  31. ApJ v.496 The Ages and Abundances of a Large Sample of M87 Globular Clusters Cohen,J.G.;Blakeslee,J.P.;Ryzhov,A. https://doi.org/10.1086/305427
  32. The Ages and Abundances of a Sample of Globular Clusters in M49 (NGC 4472) Cohen,J.G.;Blakeslee,J.P.;Cote,P. https://doi.org/10.1086/375865
  33. Observing Massive Galaxy Formation Conselice,C.J.
  34. AJ v.118 Kinematics of the Galactic Globular Cluster System: New Radial Velocities for Clusters in the Direction of the Inner Galaxy Cote,P. https://doi.org/10.1086/300930
  35. New Horizons in Globular Cluster Astronomy The Formation of Globular Cluster Systems, astro-ph/0210582 Cote,P.;Piotto,G.(et al.)(eds)
  36. ApJ v.501 The Formation of Giant Elliptical Galaxies and theire Globular Cluster Sysems Cote,P.;Marzke,R.O.;Wset,M.J. https://doi.org/10.1086/305838
  37. ApJ v.533 Evidence for the Hierarchical Formation of the Galactic Spheroid Cote,P.;Marzke,R.O.;West,M.J.;Minniti,D. https://doi.org/10.1086/308709
  38. ApJ v.559 Dynamics of the Globular Cluster System Associated with M87 (NGC 4486): Ⅱ. Analysis Cote,P.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/322347
  39. ApJ v.567 Globular Cluster Systems and the Missing Satellite Problem: Implications for Cold Dark Matter Models Cote,P.;West,M.J.;Marzke,R.O. https://doi.org/10.1086/338670
  40. ApJ v.591 Dynamics of the Globular Cluster System Associated with M49 (NGC 4472): Cluster Orbital Properties and the Distribution of Dark Matter Cote,P.;McLaughlin,D.E.;Cohen,J.G.;Blakeslee,J.P. https://doi.org/10.1086/375488
  41. ApJ v.548 Galaxy Mapping with the Sauron Integral-Field Spectrograph: The Star Formation History of NGC 4365 Davies,R.L.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/318930
  42. RMxAC v.14 The Mass Profile of NGC 1399 Determined from Globular Cluster Dynamics Dirsch,B.(et al.)
  43. AJ v.125 The Globular Cluster System of NGC 1399. Ⅰ. A Wide-Field Photometric Study Dirsch,B.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/368238
  44. ApJ v.136 Evidence from the Motions of Old Stars that the Galaxy Collapsed Eggen,O.J.;Lynden-Bell,D.;Sandage,A.R. https://doi.org/10.1086/147433
  45. astro-ph/0102056 Galaxy Formation and Evolution: Recent Progress Ellis,R.
  46. ApJ v.577 Star Formation from Galaxies to Globules Elmergreen,B.G. https://doi.org/10.1086/342177
  47. MNRAS v.280 The globular clusters in M87: a bimodal colour distribution Elson,R.A.W.;Santiago,B.X. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/280.3.971
  48. ApJ v.298 A Theory for the Origin of Globular Clusters Fall,S.M.;Rees,M.J. https://doi.org/10.1086/163585
  49. ApJ v.561 Dynamical Evolution of the Mass Function of Globular Star Clusters Fall,S.M.;Zhang,Q. https://doi.org/10.1086/323358
  50. AJ v.113 On the Origin of Globular Clusters in Elliptical and cD Galaxies Forbes,D.A.;Brodie,J.P.;Grillmair,C.J. https://doi.org/10.1086/118382
  51. MNRAS v.322 The Connection between Globular Cluster Systems and the Host Galaxies Forbes,D.A.;Forte,J.C. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04052.x
  52. ApJ v.565 Age Estimates for Globular Clusters in NGC 1399 Forbes,D.;Beasley,M.A.;Brodie,J.P.;Kissler-Patig,M.
  53. AJ v.111 Washington Photometry of the Globular Cluster System of NGC 4472. Ⅰ. Analysis of the Metallic Geisler,D.;Lee,M.G.;Kim,E. https://doi.org/10.1086/117894
  54. IAU Symp. no.207 Extragalactic Globular Clusters Geisler,D.;Minniti,D.;Grebel,E.
  55. ARA&A v.40 Lyman-break Galaxies Giavalisco,M. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.40.121301.111837
  56. Do Globular Clusters Time the Universe? Gnedin,O.Y.;Lahav,O.;Rees,M.J.
  57. astro-ph/0210556 Formation of Globular Clusters: In and Out of Dwarf Galaxies Gnedin,O.Y. https://doi.org/10.1007/10857603_35
  58. A&AS v.132 A Catalogue of Mg₂Indices of Galaxies and Globular Clusters Golev,V.;Prugniel,Ph. https://doi.org/10.1051/aas:1998293
  59. ApJ v.559 Dynamics of the Globular Cluster System Associated with M87 (NGC 4486). I. New CFHT MOS Spectroscopy and the Composite Database Hanes,D.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/322346
  60. ARA&A v.29 Globular Cluster Systems in Galaxies Beyond the Local Group Harris,W.E. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.aa.29.090191.002551
  61. ApJ v.420 Supergiant Molecular Clouds and the Formation of Globular Cluster Systems Harris,W.E.;Pudritz,R.E. https://doi.org/10.1086/173551
  62. Saas-Fee Advanced Course 28 in Star Clusters Harris,W.E.;Labhardt,L.(et a.)(eds)
  63. AJ v.123 The Halo Stars in NGC 5128. Ⅲ. An Inner Halo Field and the Metallicity Distribution Harris,W.E.;Harris,G.L.H. https://doi.org/10.1086/340466
  64. Globular Clusters: the View from HST Harris,W.E.
  65. AJ v.86 Globular Clusters in Galaxies Beyond the Local Group. Ⅰ- New Cluster Systems in Selected Northern Ellipticals Harris,W.E.;van den Bergh,S.
  66. Globular Clusters in Nearby Galaxy Clusters Hilker,M. https://doi.org/10.1007/10857603_28
  67. MNRAS v.338 Galaxy formation using halo merger histories taken from N-body simulations Helly,J.C.;Cole,S.;Frenk,C.S.;Baugh,C.M.;Benson,A.;Lacey,C. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06151.x
  68. astro-ph/9905116 Distance Measures in Cosmology Hogg,D.W.
  69. ApJ v.583 Measuring Distances and Probing the Unreasolves Stellar Populations of Galaxies Using Infrared Surface Brightness Fluctuations Jensen,J.B.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/345430
  70. ApJ v.576 The Relative Ages of the Globular Cluster Subpopulations in M87 Jordan,A.;Cote,P.;West,M.J.;Marzke,R.O. https://doi.org/10.1086/343759
  71. AJ v.125 A Point Source Excess in Abell 1185: Intergalactic Globular Clusters? Jordan,A.;West,M.J.;Cote,P.;Marzke,R.O. https://doi.org/10.1086/368393
  72. MNRAS v.264 The Formation and Evolution of Galaxies within Merging Dark Matter Halos Kauffmann,G.;White,S.D.M.;Guiderdoni,B. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/264.1.201
  73. MNRAS v.340 GCD+: a New Chemodynamical Approach to Modelling Supernovae and Chemical Enrichment in Elliptical Galaxies Kawada,D.;Gibson,B.K. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06356.x
  74. The Importance of Dry and Mixed Mergers for Earl-type Galaxy Formation Khochfar,S.;burkert,A. https://doi.org/10.1086/379845
  75. MNRAS v.314 Wide-field CCD Surface Photometry of the Giant Elliptical Galaxy NGC 4472 in the Virgo cluster Kim,E.;Lee,M.G.;Geisler,D. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03356.x
  76. AJ v.116 The Spin of M87 as Measured from the Rotation of its Globular Clusters Kissler-Patig,M.;Gebhardt,K. https://doi.org/10.1086/300609
  77. MNRAS v.298 Constraints on the Merger Models of Elliptical Galaxies from their Globular Cluster Systems Kissler-Patig,M.;Forbes,D.A.;Minniti,D. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.1998.01725.x
  78. AJ v.117 Toward an Understanding of the Globular Cluster Overabundance around the Central Giant Elliptical Galaxy NGC 1399 Kissler-Patig,M.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/300762
  79. A&A v.391 Extragalactic Globular Clusters in the Near Infrared, I. A Comparison between M87 and NGC 4478 Kissler-Patig,M.;Brodie,J.P.;Minniti,D. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20020831
  80. A&AP v.320 Origin of the Colour-magnitude Relation of Elliptical Galaxies Kodama,T.;Arimoto,N.
  81. A&AP v.334 Evolution of the Colour-magnitude Relation of Early-type Galaxies in Distant Clusters Kodama,T.(et al.)
  82. MNRAS v.306 The Colour-magnitude Relation of Early-type Galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field Kodama,T.;Bower,R.G.;Bell,E.F. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02542.x
  83. ApJ First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: TE Polarization Kogut,A.(et al.)
  84. ApJ v.295 Families of Ellipsoidal Stellar Systems and the Formation of Dwarf Elliptical Galaxies Kormendy,J. https://doi.org/10.1086/163350
  85. Science v.299 Age Estimates of Globular Clusters in the Milky Way: Constaints on Cosmology Krauss,L.M.;Chaboyer,B. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1075631
  86. Formation of Globular Clusters in Hierarchical Cosmology Kravtsov,A.V.;Gnedin,O.Y. https://doi.org/10.1086/428636
  87. AJ v.121 New Insights from HST Studies of Globular Cluster Systems. I. Colors, Distances, and Specific Frequencies of 28 Elliptical Galaxies Kundu,A.V.;Whitmore,B.C.
  88. AJ v.122 New Insights from Hubble Space Telescope Studies of Globular Cluster Systems. Ⅱ. Analysis of 29 S0 Systems Kundu,A.V.;Whitmore,B.C. https://doi.org/10.1086/322095
  89. ApJ v.513 The Globular Cluster System in the Inner Region of M87 Kundu,A.V.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/306865
  90. AJ v.121 Properties of Globular Cluster Systems in Nearby Early-Type Galaxies Larsen,S.S.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/321081
  91. ApJ v.585 Evidence for an Intermediate-Age Metal-rich Population of Globular Clusters in NGC 4365 Larsen,S.S.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/346219
  92. MNRAS v.166 Dynamical Models for the Formation and Evolution of Spherical Galaxies Larson,R.B. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/166.3.585
  93. AJ v.106 Metal abundances for a large sample of globular clusters in M87 Lee,M.G.;Geisler,D. https://doi.org/10.1086/116657
  94. AJ v.114 Young Star Clusters in the Dwarf Irregular Galaxy, UGC 7636, Interacting with the Giant Elliptical Galaxy NGC 4472 Lee,M.G.;Kim,E.;Geisler,D. https://doi.org/10.1086/118608
  95. AJ v.115 Washington Photometry of the Globular Cluster System of NGC 4472. Ⅱ. The Luminosity Function and Spatial Structure Lee,M.G.;Kim,E.;Geisler,D. https://doi.org/10.1086/300249
  96. AJ v.120 The Globular Cluster System in the Inner Region of the Giant Elliptical Galaxy NGC 4472 Lee,M.B.;Kim,E. https://doi.org/10.1086/301438
  97. IAU Symp. no.207 A Comparative Study of Globular Clusters in UGC 9799 and NGC 1129, in Extragalactic Star Clusters Lee,M.G.;Kim,E.;Geisler,D.;Bridges,T.;Ashman,K.;E.K.Grebel(ed.);D.Geisler(ed.);D.Minniti(ed.)
  98. Lee,M.G.;'Park,H.S.;Kim,E.;Geisler,D.
  99. ApJ Cosmological Origin of the Stellar Velocity Dispersions in Massive Early-type Galaxies Loeb,A.;Peebles,P.J.E.
  100. What Determines Galactic Evolution? Matteucci,F. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024089402368
  101. ApJ Simulations of Galaxy Formation in a Lambda CDM Universe Ⅲ: The Dissipative Formation of an Elliptical Galaxy Meza,A.;Navarro,J.F.;Steinmetz,M.;Icke,V.R.
  102. AJ v.115 Radical Velocities of Globular Clusters in the Giant Elliptical Galaxy NGC 1399 Minniti,D.;Kissler-Patig,M.;Goudfrooij,P.;Meylan,G. https://doi.org/10.1086/300173
  103. ApJ v.524 Dark Matter Substructure within Galactic Halos Moore,B.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/312287
  104. ApJ v.147 Are Young Galaxies Visible? Partridge,R.B.;Peebles,P.J.E. https://doi.org/10.1086/149079
  105. A New Era in Cosmology When did the Large Elliptical Galaxies Form? Peebles,P.J.E.;Metcalfe,N.(ed.);Shanks,T.(ed.)
  106. ApJ v.154 Origin of the Globular Star Clusters Peebles,P.J.E.;Dicke,R.H. https://doi.org/10.1086/149811
  107. ApJ v.277 Dark Matter and the Origin of Galaxies and Globular Clusters Peebles,P.J.E. https://doi.org/10.1086/161714
  108. AJ v.124 A Young Blue Tidal Stream in NGC 5128 Peng,W.;Ford,H.C.;Freeman,K.C.;White,R.L. https://doi.org/10.1086/344308
  109. AJ v.100 CCD Surface Photometry of Galaxies with Dyanmical Data. Ⅱ- UBR Photometry of 39 elliptical galaxies Peletier,R.F.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/115582
  110. AJ v.123 The Kinematics and Metallicity of the M31 Globular Cluster System Perrett(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/340186
  111. AJ v.118 The Age Dofference between the Globular Cluster Subpopulations in NGC 4472 Puzia,T.H.;Kissler-Patig,M.;Brodie,J.P.;Huchra,J.P. https://doi.org/10.1086/301141
  112. A&A v.391 Extragalactic Golbular Clusters in the Near Infrared. I. The Globular Cluster Systems of NGC 3115 and NGC 4365 Puzia,T.H.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20020835
  113. astro-ph/9902108 Origin of Bulges Renzini,A.
  114. ApJ v.416 Transverse Dissections of the Fundamental Planes of Elliptical Galaxies and Clusters of Galaxies Renzini,A.;Ciotti,L. https://doi.org/10.1086/187068
  115. AJ v.121 The Globular Cluster System in the Outer Regions of NGC 4472 Rhode,K.L.;Zepf,S.E. https://doi.org/10.1086/318039
  116. IAU Symp. no.207 Spectroscopy of Globular Clusters in NGC 1399-A Progress Report, Extragalactic Star Clusters Richtler,T.(et al.);E.K.Grebel(ed.);D.Minniti(ed.)
  117. A&A Massive z-1.3 Evolved Galaxies Revealed Saracco,P.(et al.)
  118. IAU Symp. no.207 Evolution of Globular Clusters Formed in Mergers, in Extragalactic Star Clusters Schweizer,F.;E.K.Grdbel(ed.);D.Geisler(ed.);D.Minniti(ed.)
  119. New Horizon in Globular Cluster Astronomy Formation of Globular Clusters in Mergin Galaxies Schweizer,F.;G.Piotto(et al.)(eds)
  120. ApJ v.225 Compositions of Halo Clusters and the Formation of the Galactic Halo Searle,L.;Zinn,R. https://doi.org/10.1086/156499
  121. New Astronomy Reviews v.45 The Formation of Galaxies Silk,J.;Bowwens,R. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1387-6473(00)00164-0
  122. MNRAS v.323 A Photometric Study of the Ages and Metallicities of Early-type Galaxies in A2218 Smail,I.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04249.x
  123. ApJ v.578 On the Low-Mass End of the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function Smith,G.H.;Burkert,A. https://doi.org/10.1086/344498
  124. ApJ First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters Spergel,D.M.(et al.)
  125. ASP Conf. Series Galaxy Formation Now and Then, in Hubble's Science Legacy: Future Optical-Ultraviolet Astronomy from Space Steinmetz,M.
  126. New Astronomy v.8 The Hierarchical Origi of Galaxy Morphologies Steinmetz,M.;Navarro,J.F. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1384-1076(02)00228-2
  127. AJ v.125 Keck Spectroscopy of Globular Clusters in the Elliptical Galaxy NGC 3610 Strader,J.;Brodie,J.P.;Schweizer,F.;Larsen,S.S.;Seitzer,P. https://doi.org/10.1086/346086
  128. AJ v.119 Origin of Color Gradients in Elliptical Galaxies Tamura,N.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/301333
  129. MNRAS v.326 The Colour-magnitude Relation for Galaxies in the Coma Cluster Terlevich,A.I.;Caldwell,N.;Bower,R.G. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2966.2001.04702.x
  130. A&A v.401 The Impact of α/Fe Enhanced Stellar Evolutionary Tracks on the Ages of Elliptical Galaxies Thomas,D.;Maraston,C. https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20030153
  131. MNRAS v.339 Stellar Population Models of Lick Indices with Variable Element Abundance Ratios Thomas,D.;Maraston,D.;Bender,R. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06248.x
  132. ApJ v.178 Stellar Evolution in Elliptical Galaxies Tinsley,B.M. https://doi.org/10.1086/151793
  133. ApJ v.546 The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. Ⅳ. SBF Magnitudes, Colors, and Distances Tonry,J.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/318301
  134. AJ Cosmological Results from High-z Supernovae Tonry,J.(et al.)
  135. The Evolution of Galaxies and Galaxy Populations v.401 Toomre,A.;B.M.Tinsley(ed.);R.B.Larsen
  136. ApJ v.556 Cosmological Evolution of Supergiant Star-forming Clouds Weil,M.L.;Pudritz,R.E. https://doi.org/10.1086/321538
  137. ApJ v.109 Hubble Space Telescope Observations of Young Star Clusters in NGC 4038/4039, "the Antennae" Galaxies Whitmore,B.C.;Schweizer,F.
  138. ApJ v.454 Hubble Space Telescope Observations of Globular Clusters in M87 and an Estimate of H0 Whitmore,B.C.;Sparks,W.B.;Lucas,R.A.;Macchetto,F.D.;Biretta,J.A.
  139. The Formation of Star Clusters Whitmore,B.C.
  140. AJ v.112 The Hubble Deep Field: Observations, Data Reduction, and Galaxy Photometry Williams,R.E.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/118105
  141. ApJS v.95 Comprehensive Stellar Population Models and the Disentanglement of Age and Metallicity Effects Worthey,G. https://doi.org/10.1086/192096
  142. MNRAS v.264 Globular Cluster Systems Formed in Galaxy Mergers Zepf,S.E.;Ashman,K.M. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnras/264.3.611
  143. AJ v.120 Dynamical Constraints on the Formation of NGC 4472 and its Globular Clusters Zepf,S.E.(et al.) https://doi.org/10.1086/316850
  144. ApJ v.585 Massive Elliptical Galaxies at High Redshift: NICMOS Imaging of z${Wthickapprox}$ 1 Radio Galaxies Zirm,A.W.;Dickinson,M.;Dey,A. https://doi.org/10.1086/346021

Cited by

  1. SUBARU SPECTROSCOPY OF THE GLOBULAR CLUSTERS IN THE VIRGO GIANT ELLIPTICAL GALAXY M86 vol.757, pp.2, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/757/2/184
  2. THE GLOBULAR CLUSTER SYSTEM OF THE VIRGO GIANT ELLIPTICAL GALAXY NGC 4636. I. SUBARU/FAINT OBJECT CAMERA AND SPECTROGRAPH SPECTROSCOPY AND DATABASE vol.709, pp.1, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/709/1/377
  3. THE GLOBULAR CLUSTER SYSTEM OF THE VIRGO GIANT ELLIPTICAL GALAXY NGC 4636. II. KINEMATICS OF THE GLOBULAR CLUSTER SYSTEM vol.709, pp.2, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/1083
  4. The Nature of Blue Early‐Type Galaxies in the GOODS Fields vol.650, pp.1, 2006, https://doi.org/10.1086/507121
  5. THE STAR CLUSTER SYSTEM IN THE LOCAL GROUP STARBURST GALAXY IC 10 vol.804, pp.2, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/804/2/123
  6. Wandering Globular Clusters: the First Dwarf Galaxies in the Universe? vol.48, 2011, https://doi.org/10.1051/eas/1148054
  7. The Globular Cluster System of M60 (NGC 4649). I. Canada‐France‐Hawaii Telescope MOS Spectroscopy and Database vol.674, pp.2, 2008, https://doi.org/10.1086/522956
  8. Washington CCD Photometry of the Globular Cluster System of the Giant Elliptical Galaxy M60 in Virgo vol.682, pp.1, 2008, https://doi.org/10.1086/587469
  9. A CATALOG OF BRIGHT STAR CLUSTERS IN THE INTERACTING GALAXY M51 vol.135, pp.4, 2008, https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-6256/135/4/1567
  10. The Globular Cluster System of M60 (NGC 4649). II. Kinematics of the Globular Cluster System vol.674, pp.2, 2008, https://doi.org/10.1086/524001
  11. THE GLOBULAR CLUSTER SYSTEM OF NGC 4636 AND FORMATION OF GLOBULAR CLUSTERS IN GIANT ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES vol.759, pp.2, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637X/759/2/116